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Effective experience design requires not only a knowledge of tourist goals, but an understanding of how these can be met in a particular tourism site. Research on experiences and experience design is supported by cognitive psychology concepts such as perception, attention, appraisal, emotion, consciousness, feelings and memory. However, these concepts are often used in a combination with others from sociology, social or environmental psychology in a manner that leads to confusion rather than clarity, without apparent understanding of the theoretical mechanisms by which these concepts are related. This chapter develops a series of propositions for potential application to tourism experience design. Future research should examine the efficacy of these propositions from cognitive psychology for tourism experience design.

Novelty detection in the environment is an important mental ability for evolutionary survival. It is also critical for understanding emotional arousal and its effect on memories in tourism. Tourism takes place, by definition, in an unusual environment and therefore intimately involves this concept. This chapter discusses novelty definition, processing, and effects on attention, goals, memories and emotions, and role in tourist experiences. Theoretical and practical implications have been discussed, including the potential utilisation of aspects of novelty in tourism experience design and how its use can improve experiences. Future research should focus on its antecedents and consequences in tourism experiences, as well as the effect of degree of novelty on emotional arousal.

This chapter discusses the main psychological paradigms used in the past 100 years, psychodynamism, behaviourism and cognitivism based on an information processing paradigm, and later cognitivism based on complex interactive mental processes. It briefly introduces the main concepts of later cognitive psychology: consciousness, sensation, perception, attention, emotion and memory. Each of these concepts will be discussed in detail in later chapters along with their application to tourism. One basic assumption of cognitive psychology is that the brain emerged through evolution and has survival value. However, this means that the brain is not a unified designed organ but has layers of development, one building on the others.

This chapter clarifies the definition and reviews recent theories of consciousness, such as the dual systems framework, global workplace theory, and higher-order theory. Aspects of conscious experiences are useful in studying tourism decisionmaking, memory, emotions, tourism behaviour, and other topics related to tourism psychology. For instance, studies on conscious experiences of decisionmaking are useful to better understand destination choice and tourists' emotions elicitation, unconscious biases help to understand tourism attitude formation, while explicit and implicit cognition research provides insights to destination image attributes. Future studies may consider using objective and subjective methods of studying consciousness in the tourism context.

This chapter introduces the cognitive paradigm. The concept of translation and associated problems is discussed. Several arguments for the adoption of a cognitive-based social sciences are provided. A brief history of the term cognition is provided and the origin of theory in tourism discussed. Justifications for the use of cognitive psychology in the field of tourism are provided. These include the (mostly) hedonic and hence emotional nature of tourism experiences, the novelty of travel outside one's usual environment, the importance of imagining, daydreams, emotions and desire for travel decisions and the importance of autobiographical memories because of travel.

The education of deaf and hard of hearing (d/DHH) students is largely dependent on the preferred mode of communication. Historically, the mode of communication for d/DHH students was determined by society rather than by students and families. This resulted in divisiveness between the Deaf culture and proponents of oral communication. The adoption of IDEA allowed family participation in the decision-making process. Advances in technology increased student access to sound, resulting in more educational placement options. Despite the positive changes, the complex nature of hearing loss and the wide variety in cultural considerations have made it difficult to determine the best approach to deaf education. Thus, educators and providers are left in a conundrum of which version of “traditional” deaf education is best for students.

Traditional studies in the sociology of science have highlighted the self-organized character of the academic community. This article focuses on recent interrelated changes that alter that distinctive governance structure and its related patterns of competition and cooperation. The changes that we identify here are contractualization and large-scale cooperative research. We use different data sources to exemplify these new patterns and discuss the illustrative role of research clusters in German academia. Research clusters as funded by the German Research Foundation (DFG) are both a highly prestigious scarce good in the competition for reputation and resources and a means of fostering cooperation. Our analysis of this German example reveals that this new institutional configuration of universities as organizations, academic researchers, and the state has a profound effect on organizational practices. We discuss the implications of our empirical findings with regard to collegiality in academia. Ultimately, we anticipate a further weakening of collegial bonds, not only because universities and the state have become more active in shaping the nature of academic competition and cooperation but also because of the increasing strategic and individualistic orientation of academic researchers. In the final section, we summarize our findings and address the need for further research and an international comparative perspective.