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Given the growing popularity of virtual human resources development (VHRD) in organizations and among human resource development (HRD) professionals, it is highly essential to deeply examine the nature and scope of the affective dimensions of the VHRD approach. Over the past decade, VHRD has become an important part of the HRD process.

The present study used an integrative literature review to investigate the nature of VHRD in the literature, present a descriptive analysis of the literature and categorize the existing VHRD research.

The results indicated three major themes, namely, VHRD and socialization, VHRD and learning and VHRD and the psychological characteristics of the work environment. In addition, a new conceptual model was developed based on the findings.

This study has reviewed the main concepts of VHRD. The potential actions which HRD researchers can take to address the identified challenges are discussed.

This integrative literature review could provide a roadmap for future research. Based on this model, the VHRD position is within the organizational context and different tools and processes in constant interaction are introduced. Finally, a general view of the VHRD approach was provided, which can help human resources experts deal with a wide range of technologies in the organization.

Previous research examined the effectiveness of virtual reality (VR) in various fields including engineering (Alhalabi, 2016), the military (Webster, 2016), robotic surgery (Bric et al., 2016; Francis et al., 2020), firefighters (Çakiroglu and Gökoglu, 2019), negotiation training (Ding et al., 2020), health-care training (Chow et al., 2017) and ethics education (Sholihin et al., 2020). However, empirical research examining learning styles on the effectiveness of using VR is still scarce. VR has different characteristics from other learning media and high immersiveness in a VR environment can create a sense of presence that improves learning outcomes, except for students with certain learning styles who experience cognitive overload when exploring virtual environments (Hsu et al., 2017). Therefore, it is necessary to investigate to what extent learning styles can influence the effectiveness of VR-based learning on business ethics. This is because the effectiveness of business ethics education is indispensable along with the increasing cases of fraud and financial companies (PwC’s Global Economic Crime and Fraud, 2020).

Education must respond to the progress of information technology (IT) development by providing IT-based teaching methods to enhance the learning process. This is because the evolution of technology is changing student learning preferences from verbal to visual or even virtual (Proserpio and Gioia, 2007). VR is an IT-based learning media that creates a virtual environment which simulates the real world and provides concrete experiences, so students are able to actively explore their course material. VR technology is able to provide practical experiences without actually leaving home, so it is relevant for responding to the current situation due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Compared to traditional learning, VR is a more flexible learning method as it has no limitations of time, distance and space (Yu et al., 2007). The main characteristic of VR is immersion, interaction and imagination (Zhang et al., 2017) that improve cognitive performance in engineering (Alhalabi, 2016), the military (Webster, 2016) and surgical robots (Bric et al., 2016). VR-based learning can improve students’ learning abilities compared to traditional teaching (Jena, 2016). VR has already proven effective in teaching business ethics (Sholihin et al., 2020) because VR has the ability to create a virtual world, without any impact from socially reprehensible acts. With VR, students are able to understand scenarios about ethical dilemmas that occur in business practices, observe the potential consequences and make decisions to solve concrete situations where ethical dilemmas require a response. VR allows students to simulate situations virtually and develop their long-term experience. This is crucial because there is the possibility that in the near future the society will live in a mixed world (virtual and physical space).

A virtual environment that is able to evoke a sense of presence refers to the intensity of emotional involvement. Sense of presence can actually improve the learning results, but if the user lacks the ability to explore game tasks it will cause a cognitive overload that has a negative impact on learning outcomes (Hsu et al., 2017; Huang et al., 2020). Learning style preferences cause differences in cognitive load during the learning process using VR (Hsu et al., 2017). In a VR-based learning environment, students are required to explore the virtual environment; therefore, without navigation, students with active experimental learning styles are superior to students with passive or observing learning styles (Chen et al., 2005). Therefore, it is necessary to understand the impact of adopting VR technology to improve student’s performance by considering different learning styles.

In Indonesia, the shift from offline learning to e-learning has created new academic pressures for some students (Pajarianto et al., 2020). The main challenge for educators is how to improve student’s learning outcomes and overcome the problem of using e-learning technology.

In light of the scarcity of research on the effectiveness of VR for teaching business ethics during the COVID-19 pandemic, this study fills the gap by extending the study of Sholihin et al. (2020) in that the authors establish the connection between user perception of the use of VR and learning style in relation to the effectiveness of VR.

Lifelong learning has come to involve a variety of learning experiences. These include conventional campus teaching, workplace open learning, modular flexible learning programmes, correspondence‐based distance learning courses, and most recently Web or multimedia‐based courseware. This paper considers the use of multimedia environments for open, flexible and distance education, in particular a learning environment known as the “Virtual University” as part of a process of lifelong learning. A comparison of different modes of learning is made. The Virtual University consists of virtual lectures, virtual seminars, virtual tutorials and virtual exams. It has a number of advantages over both formal lectures and conventional open learning materials, such as interactivity, adaptation, simulation, demonstration and integration. A questionnaire survey was conducted to assess the effectiveness of the Virtual University, and the results indicate an enhancement of the overall learning experience.

This paper aims to examine three distinct aspects of authenticity that pre-service teachers (PSTs) experience when they engage with virtual classroom environments to develop their content-intensive instructional practice – task authenticity, student avatar authenticity and performance authenticity – and their perceptions about the usefulness of the simulated teaching experience to support their learning.

This paper explored these conceptions of authenticity and usefulness within a larger research study whose goal was to develop virtual environment tools to help elementary PSTs learn how to engage in one ambitious teaching practice: facilitating discussions that engage students in argumentation. To examine these aspects of authenticity and usefulness, this paper used a general qualitative deductive analysis approach to examine data from 104 interviews with 26 case study teachers and examined patterns in PSTs’ perceptions within and across interviews and authenticity aspects.

While these PSTs strongly value the utility of these tools to support their learning, findings point to variation in their perceptions of authenticity. Findings showed that most PSTs perceived the tasks as an authentic representation of the work of teaching. However, their perceptions of task authenticity did not always align with their perceptions of avatar or performance authenticity.

This paper argues that these three aspects of authenticity relate to, but expand upon, the broader notions of presence and plausibility noted in the literature on virtual environments and should be taken up more directly in future studies of users’ perceptions of virtual environments both within and outside of educational contexts.

The current paper focuses on the increasing demand for generic competences both from governments and industries. Despite this fact, there is insufficient awareness and information in education systems on how to equip graduates with appropriate generic competences for the world of work and citizenship. This is even more complicated in online virtual learning programmes where face‐to‐face communication is excluded in the design and implementation of the programme curriculum. The paper seeks to question if it is possible to develop generic competences in an online virtual learning environment.

For this purpose, the research develops a theoretical framework based on the generic competences, learning content, learning support and learning activities. The paper argues that an online virtual learning curriculum design differs from a traditional face‐to‐face classroom environment in terms of learning content, learning activities and nature of learning support. Taking these elements in designing online virtual learning programme would promote acquisition of generic competences among the students.

The research examines possibilities of the online virtual learning platform ALUD (Aprendizaje en Linea de la Universidad de Deusto) at the University of Deusto, Spain, to develop generic competences online. The research demonstrates opportunities of the online virtual learning platform ALUD to develop and practice generic competences among students even without actual and traditional face‐to‐face educational communication.

The paper explores generic competence development through the online virtual learning platform ALUD at the University of Deusto, Spain. It examines possibilities of online education platform of the University of Deusto to produce alignment between what is espoused through the curriculum, what is enacted and how students experience learning through a virtual learning programme in order to develop their generic competences online. The paper argues that the virtual learning platform ALUD provides many opportunities for learners to develop and practise their generic competences even without actual and traditional face‐to‐face educational programmes.

Today, more and more training and education are taking place on the Internet or intranet. Consequently, traditional teaching and learning skills need to change in order to gain the maximum benefit from virtual learning. Discusses three different learning theories, namely behaviourism, cognitivism, and humanism. Traditional classroom teaching tends to use the behaviourist and cognitivist approaches, where the instructor tends to control the learning. However, a virtual learning classroom lends itself to a more humanist approach, where learners can take control of their own learning. In addition, the virtual classroom can encourage experiential and collaborative learning. Consequently, tutors need to be able to facilitate learning and group processes rather than instruct the learners or communicate information. Develops, compares and contrasts two models of learning, that of the traditional classroom and that of the virtual learning environment. Finally, in order to enhance virtual learning in groups, a number of implications and recommendations are presented for facilitators.

The purpose of this approach is to structure and facilitate the development of competency-oriented virtual training scenarios. This approach should help to develop reproducible results.

This publication presents a procedure for the structured, competency-oriented design of virtual teaching–learning environments. The procedure is based on the competency-oriented design of learning factories according to Tisch and consists of a total of three phases with various substeps. The different steps of the method are presented by means of an application example and the generated scenario is evaluated by means of a competency measurement according to Glass regarding its suitability for teaching competencies.

In addition to an application example that introduces the approach, this publication presents concrete results from the research project. In addition to a review of the opportunities and limitations of virtual reality (VR) in continuing education, these also refer to possible, realizable requirements for the use of VR. In addition, results on the suitability of VR learning environments for competency development in the context of value streaming mapping training are presented.

This approach represents a substantial extension of existing concepts for the design of physical learning factory training for lean topics. It can help learning factory operators and other training providers to design competency- and user-oriented virtual training. VR offers a multitude of potentials in this context, but these can only be exploited through conscientious use of the technology.

This paper aims to describe the deployment of an e‐learning environment for construction courses based on enhancing virtual computing technologies using agent‐based techniques.

This research involves designing and deploying a complex application that combines advanced visualisation, interactive management through complex virtual devices, distributed multi‐user communication and intelligent components. The proposed agent‐oriented methodology and resulting application organises construction knowledge into a structure that enables the students to undertake more self‐directed, systematic and scientific exploration.

There is great potential for experimenting with a wider variety of educational technologies such as “intelligent” virtual environments. This is a concept that needs further experimentation within construction courses to enrich students' learning with practice‐based experiences. The use of ageny‐oriented objects within simulations and modeling make the virtual learning environment a highly interactive experience. Attempts to do this using traditional intelligent tutoring systems have been frustrated by integrations challenges. Agent‐based systems can handle such challenges. The agent approach is also more efficient in analysing the impact of different decisions in various scenarios by automating the execution of repetitive, time‐consuming actions.

This research identifies specific gaps in the existing e‐learning infrastructure that can be addressed using the intelligent agent paradigm. In particular, the research demonstrates how the notion of learning by actively exploring and controlling environmental variables can be best utilised in the selected domain by giving the learners the means to rapidly visualize the effects of their decisions.

Construction disciplines have increasingly embraced the use of advanced visualisation applications and display systems that allow students to gain a better understanding of the construction process and the resulting facility's performance. Existing efforts are based on image visualisation or animation detailed using, for example, Virtual Reality Modeling Language and 3D Studio Max‐based design animations and walkthroughs. None of these efforts has explored the use of an agent oriented, virtual tutoring approach. A comprehensive literature review established that of no formalised methodologies exist for deploying agent‐based virtual learning environments.

This research case study shares the partnership between librarians and educators to create a live digital literacy experience at The Quest (Camelot Project), a virtual world medieval simulation. The purpose of the partnership was to gain understanding of the learning elements addressed with a group of participants from across the globe, working at various skill levels and interacting with an immersive virtual world simulation.

Using field notes, machinima and interviews (participatory action research), the study identifies learning elements within three contexts: technological, pedagogical and content. Learners cycle toward intended learning outcomes in a virtual-world treasure hunt game from the perspective of both designers and participants.

Findings of the case study illustrate the value of collaboration in a digital game-based learning (DGBL) environment through scaffolding of knowledge and skills in a virtual world. Findings exemplify the experiential learning cycle within a virtual world for constructing learning, and support a proposed new theoretical framework of technology-mediated learning which may help educators in both design and implementation.

As virtual worlds and immersive learning opportunities continue to expand for learners and educators, this study shares the value of experiential learning from the perspective of both the teacher and the learner. Socially constructing knowledge and acquiring skills across distance with a team of librarians and educators are innovative examples of DGBL in an alternative reality setting.

This study aims to deepen understanding of the use of stereoscopic 3D technology (stereo3D) in facilitating organizational learning. The emergence of advanced virtual technologies, in particular to the stereo3D virtual reality, has fundamentally changed the ways in which organizations train their employees. However, in academic or professional studies, there is hitherto, very limited research has been found in understanding the framework of distributed organizational learning in stereo3D virtual reality.

The aim of this research is to investigate the employees’ learning achievement in both the conventional in-house training program and distributed organizational learning approach in a designed stereo3D virtual reality to deepen our understanding of this undiscovered framework. In all, 76 employees from local fashion and apparel organizations were recruited in this empirical study. The quasi-experimental method was adopted to compare the experimental and control groups. The criterion-referenced assessment scale was applied as a post-test to assess employees’ learning achievement in a customer service management training course. A tailor-made stereo3D virtual learning environment was established to conduct the virtual training program.

Surprisingly, the results of this research found no significant difference in both the groups, which indicates that, nowadays, the two completely different learning formats have become similar in organizational learning practices.

This research, therefore, suggests a new organizational learning framework with three components: a blended in-house training, a distributed enhancement program in stereo3D virtual reality and an organizational memory system.