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The purpose of this paper is to investigate the effect of government-led programs on the engagement of individuals in entrepreneurship.

The authors worked with government-led programs of 16 European countries between 2003 and 2014 and were able to benefit from the 2008 natural experiment (i.e. the global financial crisis) to produce a robust investigation using a regression kink design (RKD).

The work shows that government-led programs that are designed to include monitoring schemes can significantly increase individuals' engagement in opportunity-driven entrepreneurship. The authors found that monitoring schemes do not have the same relevance for necessity-driven entrepreneurship. Therefore, the authors believe the difference occurs because monitoring design avoids problems related to moral hazard and adverse selection when it comes to individuals choosing whether to participate (or not) in government-led programs.

While it is important for governments to provide an enabling environment for entrepreneurship, this study showed that not all types of public program have positive results. In fact, it has been demonstrated that poorly-designed programs can actually decrease the likelihood of individuals engaging in entrepreneurial activities. The efficiency of programs is substantially improved, however, when they are designed to include monitoring schemes.

Gender equality levels opportunities for men and women and reduces the initial capital constraints women often face, and yet as entrepreneurship opportunities for women open up in more developed and egalitarian societies, fewer women are choosing entrepreneurship. This paper explores this contradiction as it relates to female economic and political participation in the context of business regulation efficiency.

Drawing on panel data from 89 countries from the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor survey and the Global Gender Gap report, we use random effects regression to examine relationships. Analyses included 252 country-years, and all data used during analyses were at the country level.

Results suggest that equality in economic participation narrows and political participation widens the entrepreneurship gender gap, but a country's business regulation efficiency moderates both relationships negatively.

This study does not distinguish opportunity- and necessity-driven entrepreneurship, and does not consider the survival rates of enterprises and their industries.

Findings are pertinent to policymakers interested in advancing female entrepreneurship. They also apply to female entrepreneurs who must begin to recognize the diversity in work-life preferences among women and men.

A theoretical model is informed by two competing theories, suggesting that in the context of female entrepreneurship, removal of economic and political participation barriers, combined with business regulation efficiency, intensifies the entrepreneurship gender gap.

The purpose of this paper is to clarify the relationship between entrepreneurial cognition and innovative entrepreneurial activity (IEA) across countries using an institutional perspective.

The paper tests theoretical model using data collected by the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor, the Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness study and the Index of Economic Freedom (IEF). A multi-level analysis is performed based on set of 1,004,620 observations from 49 countries spanning 13 years (2001–2013).

The results suggest that in terms of formal regulations; the relationship between entrepreneurial cognitions and IEA becomes stronger when there is an increase in intellectual property right and business freedom regulations in a country. On the other hand, in terms of informal institutions the relationship between entrepreneurial cognitions and IEA becomes stronger when the level of institutional collectivism and uncertainty decreases and performance orientation increases.

The study indicates that entrepreneurship by innovation increases when the individuals possess high level of entrepreneurial cognition under suitable institutional conditions (e.g. intellectual property right, business freedom, institutional collectivism, uncertainty avoidance and performance orientation).

In 2008, the world had undergone a global economic crisis. Since women always face greater difficulties in obtaining capital than men, the economic crisis had a greater effect on them. The purpose of this paper is to examine the implications of the global crisis for women's entrepreneurship, from the perspective of equality, diversity and inclusion.

The paper reviews studies on gender differences in entrepreneurship, focusing on 2007 and 2008 Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) studies that examined the rates of entrepreneurship in 43 countries.

The data show that in all 43 countries, the rates of women's entrepreneurship are lower than men's. Furthermore, the percent of women entrepreneurs is higher in countries where the general income per capita is small and where women have no other option for making a living.

This surprising finding has been explained as a result of the difference between “necessity” and “opportunity” entrepreneurship, with necessity entrepreneurship found to be more prevalent among women in poor countries, thus pointing to the role played by inequality and exclusion in women's entrepreneurial inferiority.

From the perspective of diversity, equality and inclusion, entrepreneurship can be viewed as a means for inclusion of women and other marginalized groups in countries, especially low‐income countries, in which they suffer from lack of equal opportunities and social exclusion.

The paper usefully shows how, especially in times of a global crisis, the role played by inequality and exclusion in women's entrepreneurial inferiority has important implications; such as the need to create special funds for women and the importance of establishing social and business networks for women entrepreneurs.

This paper aims at measuring the factors such as cognitive, economic and social recognition affecting entrepreneurial intention across gender in India.

This study is based on the Adult Population Survey of Global Entrepreneurship Monitor covering 4,000 respondents on their characteristics, perception and attitude toward entrepreneurship and intention of individuals for starting businesses. The data has been analyzed using chi-square statistics and logistics regression.

The relationship among the perceptions toward cognitive, economic and social recognition indicates variation across gender. The probability of becoming entrepreneurs among males and females is significantly influenced by a variety of factors such as cognitive (self-efficacy, knowledge about entrepreneurs and fear of failure), economic (perceived opportunity, career choice and easy to start) and social recognition (sense of equality, status and respect in the society and social welfare) with controlling effect of age, family size, education, working status and household income.

This paper provides insights on factors affecting entrepreneurial intention across gender and helps in developing a policy framework for promoting new ventures among male and female entrepreneurs. This paper also explores the possibility of future research on entrepreneurial intention in the Indian context.

Considering the current focus of the government in the country for promoting new ventures through various schemes, this piece of research can be valuable for various stakeholders for adopting a gender-based approach in implementing entrepreneurial initiatives in the emerging economies.

The purpose of this paper is to assess how far Jamaica has come regarding women economic empowerment, female entrepreneurship and its development policies in favour of women entrepreneurship development.

This exploratory study employs a mixed method approach to achieve its research objectives, consisting of literature review and corroboration with existing database and indices. Key insights of research on female entrepreneurship are used to reflect on published data to assess progress of female entrepreneurship development in Jamaica. The 2017 editions of the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor and Gender Entrepreneurship and Development Index were examined to gain a better understanding of how the Jamaican business environment has progressed or regressed over time and how the economic development and business environment impact female participation in Jamaica’s labour force and entrepreneurial initiatives.

The economic conditions in Jamaica and the role of females as domestic caregiver have made it difficult for women to enter the labour force even though Jamaican women are relatively better educated than men. Women remain at a disadvantage in the labour force. Jamaica’s legislation and budget allocations in favour of female entrepreneurship are analysed to identify where and how Jamaica is investing its efforts to improve women’s participation in the labour force. The authors conclude with suggestions on how the Jamaican government could facilitate further women entrepreneurship development to reach a more gender balanced inclusive socio-economic development.

While global policy has been promoting women empowerment through entrepreneurial development, little is known on the actual outcome of such human capital investment strategy and the critical vectors that contribute to such outcome. This scarcity of knowledge is also applicable to Jamaica. This paper attempts to contribute to women entrepreneurship research by reaching beyond the output-oriented perspective of various skill development programmes and attempts to link policy choice with overall macro results of entrepreneurship development in general and women entrepreneurship development in specific. The study thus provides a rare glimpse of the entrepreneurship ecosystem in Jamaica.

The purpose of this paper is to explore the start-up intention among the female population in Saudi Arabia using the social cognitive theory (SCT).

This paper is based on the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor nationwide survey of 1,835 adult females in 2017. This is one of the most comprehensive surveys for assessing the start-up climate across the globe including Saudi Arabia. The data have been analyzed using simple techniques such as chi-square statistics, correlation, and logistics regression. The factors affecting start-up intentions have been identified using the social cognitive theory (SCT).

Out of 1,835 adult females surveyed under Global Entrepreneurship Monitor, 568 of them have reported start-up intention, i.e. 31.9 percent. The profile of females with and without start-up intention has been mapped in terms of age, family size, working status, education level, region, and citizenship to understand the potential group. The results of the correlation coefficient indicated a significant and positive relationship between start-up intention (SI) among females and self-efficacy (SE), career choice (CC), employment generation (EG), and social welfare (SW). The regression estimates proved that both the constructs, i.e. self-efficacy beliefs and outcome expectations of the social cognitive model are positive and significant.

The result of this paper provides empirically meticulous evidence for understanding the start-up intention of females in Saudi Arabia based on the social cognitive theory. This study provides a key strategy for changing the start-up ecosystem for females in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. By focusing on the required knowledge, skill, and experience among females belonging to young, small family size, not-working and having higher family income may provide better start-up intention for all those who are willing to venture into a new business as a career choice, have the intention to create jobs and wish to solve social problems.

Considering the current focus of the government for establishing a knowledge-based economy by promoting new programs in the kingdom for start-ups and SMEs, the findings of this research can be valuable for the rapid acceleration of a new model of growth supported by the grass-root rise of women entrepreneurs.

The aim of this research is to determine whether entrepreneurial intention models explain the entrepreneurial behaviour of individuals regarding venture creation in Latin America, as well as to test if the three factors usually taken into consideration in these models (attitudes, perceived social value, and perceived self‐efficacy, as defined by Ajzen) really determine entrepreneurial intentions in this part of the world.

By using panel data from Global Entrepreneurship Monitor Global Report for the years 2008, 2009 and 2010, referring to Latin America, the paper employs two linear regression models to examine determinants of entrepreneurial intentions in Latin America and the role of the entrepreneurial intentions in the entrepreneurial initiative.

According to the results obtained, it can be stated that, also for the case of Latin America, entrepreneurial intentions are once more confirmed as a previous step of entrepreneurial behaviour with regard to venture creation. However, even though the three variables taken into consideration are significant as determinants of entrepreneurial intentions, evidence suggests a negative relationship between the perception of social value about entrepreneurship and the entrepreneurial intention, which contradicts the previous literature review. A further investigation regarding this result is planned for the near future.

The originality of this research arises from bringing together in a model three of the main elements in the research field of entrepreneurship – entrepreneurial intention models, global entrepreneurship monitor and Latin America (one of the most important places where the entrepreneurship phenomenon takes place).

The purpose of this paper is to use a unique set of measures from Holmes et al. (2013) to clarify the relationship between entrepreneurial readiness and entrepreneurial behaviours across countries and determine whether formal institutions moderate this relationship.

This paper uses data collected by the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor, the Index of Economic Freedom, Political Risk Services, and the Freedom House and Political Constraint Index to test a theoretical model. A multilevel analysis is performed based on set of 377,356 observations from 51 countries spanning eight years (2001-2008).

The results suggest that entrepreneurial readiness has a strong relationship with entrepreneurial behaviour (as measured by entrepreneurial entry and opportunity-based entrepreneurship) and that this relationship strengthens with increases in political democracy (PD), government regulations (GR), financial capital availability (FCA) and market liquidity (ML).

The study is based on Holmes et al.’s (2013) institutions that are most important for society, uses satisfactory sample size and multi-level modelling. However, many more institutional conditions that remain to be considered might affect entrepreneurial activities.

For policy-makers, the results show that PD, GR, FCA and ML correlate favourably with entrepreneurial behaviour when individuals have a high level of entrepreneurial readiness. Policy-makers should introduce policies that provide a secure environment to individuals to start their own ventures.

The current study is among the first to examine the three dimensions of formal institutions—political, regulatory, and economic institutions—in a single study. Using the three dimensions, the study explains theoretically and examines empirically the effect of individual-level entrepreneurial readiness on entrepreneurial behaviour.

This paper aims to evaluate whether entrepreneurs with an innovative product/service are more likely to formally register their businesses. Understanding the decision of business registration as a rational choice of the entrepreneurs, where she weighs the costs versus the benefits of such formalization, the study expands the literature on informal entrepreneurship by looking at the benefit-side rather than the typically evaluated cost-side of an individual cost-benefit evaluation.

The authors relied on the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) adult population survey to evaluate the hypothesis. Specifically, the authors used the GEM data of 2016 for Colombia, covering 2,069 observations (a representative sample at the country level), evaluating the relationship between innovativeness and business registration for the early stage of the entrepreneurial process. Given the nature of our dependent variable, the authors estimated a logistic regression model.

Different from what the authors hypothesized, they did not find empirical evidence for a positive correlation between an innovative product or service and business registration. Instead, businesses that compete with many others offering the same product/service have a higher tendency to register at the Chamber of Commerce. Contrarily of what might be suspected, opportunity-based entrepreneurship – as opposed to necessity-based – is not a relevant variable when formalizing a business, providing evidence for our hypothesis that necessity-based entrepreneurship cannot be equalized with informal entrepreneurship. Additionally, the authors show that an entrepreneur with higher socioeconomic status is more likely to register his company.

The results provide first exploratory evidence that the benefit evaluation may play a role in formalizing a start-up, thus calling for future research that not only tackles the influence of registration costs and administrative burden but rather looks at the outcome of a cost-benefit analysis. The data imply several limitations which future research should address: variables measuring the innovativeness of the product/service are rather coarse measures and need to be expanded and detailed in future research. Additionally, the authors acknowledge that a relatively high number of missing values may generate a selection bias in our population sample. Finally, because of situating the research in a developing country, the research results may lack generalizability. Therefore, researchers are encouraged to test the proposed propositions further.

In a country like Colombia with very high levels of informality, it is necessary that the government fully understands the role of innovation in the formalization process of start-ups. The results indicate that a differentiation of support mechanisms to increase the formalization of businesses according to the different stages of their development may be necessary and that aside from costs, benefits of formalization play a role. A higher level of formality is not only related to economic growth but also much better protection of workers, therefore going beyond the reduction of registration costs and the implied administrative burden should be an additional public policy target for decreasing informality. Finally, the correlation of socioeconomic stratum with the decision to register hints at a varying evaluation of formalization, a point that merits attention by government and academia.

The study shifts the focus from the evaluation of solely costs for business registering as a barrier to start-up formalization to the cost-benefit analysis. The authors propose – and show – that such an evaluation is not generalizable for all kinds of business. Specifically, the authors show that a start-up is more likely to register when it competes with a large number of competitors than when it competes with a smaller number of others offering the same. At the same time, the authors also show that the stage at which the start-up company is at influences the decision to formalize.

Este trabajo tiene como objetivo evaluar si los empresarios con un producto/servicio innovador son más propensos a registrar formalmente sus negocios, entendiendo la decisión de registrar el negocio como una elección racional, en la que el emprendedor sopesa los costos frente a los beneficios de dicha formalización. Este estudio amplía la literatura sobre el emprendimiento informal al plantear un análisis enfocado en los beneficios de una formalización del negocio.

Se utiliza la encuesta Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) Adult Population Survey para evaluar nuestras hipótesis. Específicamente, utilizamos los datos del GEM de 2016 para Colombia, cubriendo 2.069 observaciones (una muestra representativa a nivel de país), evaluando la relación entre una oferta innovadora y el registro de negocios para la etapa temprana del proceso emprendedor. Dada la naturaleza de nuestra variable dependiente, estimamos un modelo de regresión logística.

Contrario a la hipótesis propuesta, no encontramos una correlación estadísticamente significativa positiva entre un producto o servicio innovador y el registro de empresas. En su lugar, las empresas que compiten con muchas otras empresas que ofrecen el mismo producto/servicio tienen una mayor tendencia a registrarse en la Cámara de Comercio. Asimismo, el emprendimiento basado en la oportunidad -en contraposición al basado en la necesidad- no es una variable relevante a la hora de formalizar un negocio, hallazgo en congruencia con a nuestra hipótesis de que el emprendimiento basado en la necesidad no puede equipararse al emprendimiento informal. Además, mostramos que un emprendedor con un estatus socioeconómico más alto tiene una mayor probabilidad de registrar su empresa.

Los resultados obtenidos proporcionan la primera evidencia exploratoria de que la evaluación de los beneficios puede desempeñar un rol en la formalización de una empresa de nueva creación, por lo que se requiere mayor investigación que no sólo aborde la influencia de los costos de registro y administrativos asociados, sino que examine el resultado de un análisis costo-beneficio. Los datos utilizados tienen varias limitaciones que una investigación posterior debería abordar: las variables que miden el carácter innovador del producto/servicio son medidas muy básicas y deben ampliarse y detallarse en futuros estudios. Además, el número relativamente alto de valores perdidos puede generar un sesgo de selección en nuestra muestra empleada. Por último, al situar nuestra investigación en el contexto de un país de desarrollo, los resultados pueden ser poco generalizables. Por lo tanto, futuras investigaciones deberían abordar en detalle los hallazgos presentados.

En un país como Colombia, con niveles muy altos de informalidad, es necesario que el gobierno comprenda plenamente el papel de la innovación en el proceso de formalización de las empresas emergentes. Nuestros resultados indican que una diferenciación de los mecanismos de apoyo para aumentar la formalización de las empresas según las diferentes etapas de su desarrollo puede ser necesario. A su vez, además de los costos, los beneficios de la formalización juegan un papel importante. Un mayor nivel de formalidad no sólo está relacionado con el crecimiento económico sino también con una mejor protección de los trabajadores, por lo que ir más allá de la reducción de los costos de registro y de la carga administrativa implícita debería ser un objetivo adicional de política pública para disminuir la informalidad. Por último, la correlación del estrato socioeconómico con la decisión de registrarse sugiere que la evaluación de formalizarse varía dependiendo del estatus socioeconómico, un punto que merece la atención del gobierno y la academia.

Nuestro estudio desplaza la atención exclusiva en los costos de registro de una empresa, y sus barreras asociadas, hacia el análisis costo-beneficio como parte de la evaluación y decisión de formalización de las nuevas empresas. Proponemos ‐y demostramos‐ que dicha evaluación no es generalizable para todo tipo de empresas. En concreto, demostramos que es más probable que una empresa emergente se registre cuando compite con un gran número de competidores que cuando compite con un número menor de otras que ofrecen lo mismo. A su vez, también mostramos que la etapa de desarrollo en la cual se encuentra la empresa emergente influye en la decisión de formalizarse.