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Purpose – In this chapter, we outline early sociological thinking on time rooted in various philosophies of time and review the relatively current research in the area of temporal perspective. Next, we define the scope of the social psychology of time and illustrate how and why social psychology has failed to properly and effectively include time as a central component of study. Finally, we link current thinking about time to group processes research, most directly to identity and social identity processes (though not exclusively), making clear the ways current and future approaches could benefit from including temporal perspectives.

Methodology – We review relevant research engaged with concepts related to time in psychology, sociology, and social psychology. On the foundation of our review and the identification of gaps in the literature, we provide insights and recommendations regarding how temporal perspectives may be adopted by existing knowledge bases in sociological social psychology.

Findings – As a conceptual chapter, this work presents no empirical findings. A review of the literature reveals a scarcity of research effectively embedding temporal perspectives in major areas of social psychological research.

Practical Implications – The recommendations we make for connecting temporal perspectives to existing research areas provide a practical foundation from which to develop new ideas.

Social Implications – This work contributes to the social psychology of time by detailing how time is an important, yet mostly overlooked, component to our understandings of many social psychological processes. In the effort to extend identity and social identity theory in specific, we add to the general knowledge of the self and self-processes via the incorporation of temporal perspectives.

Originality – This work is the first to explore how temporal perspectives in sociological social psychology are employed, but mostly, how they are underutilized. We make recommendations for how novel theoretical predictions may emerge by including perspectives about time in existing research programs.

The ability to analyze social action as it unfolds on micro time scales – particularly the 24-hour day – is central to understanding group processes. This chapter describes a new approach to this undertaking, which treats individuals’ involvement in specific activities at specific times as bases for: (1) sequential linkages between activities; as well as (2) connections to others who engage in similar action sequences. This makes it possible to examine the emergence and internal functioning of groups using existing network analysis techniques.

We illustrate this approach with a specific application – a quantitative and visual comparison of the daily activity patterns of employed and unemployed people. We use data from 13,310 24-hour time diaries from the 2010–2013 American Time Use Surveys.

Employed and unemployed people engage in significantly different types of activities and at different times. Beyond this, network analyses reveal that unemployed individuals experience much lower levels of synchrony with each other than do employed individuals and have much less organized action sequences. In short, there is a chronic lack of prevailing norms regarding how unemployed people organize the 24-hour day.

Future research that uses time-stamped data can employ network methods to analyze and visualize how group members sequence and synchronize social action. These methods make it possible to study how the structure of social action shapes group and individual-level outcomes.

The study aims to investigate the time for social media posts and reviews in order to determine the best timing to ensure maximum outreach and interactions from users. The study intends to analytically investigate a company's Facebook and Instagram pages to get meaningful insights for effective post management.

“Great Deal Tires” company’s Facebook and Instagram business pages were taken as the case study and patterns and analytical insights for different posts using Facebook and Instagram analytics were identified. The study categorically selected posts from Facebook pages and Instagram pages that were posted at different times and assessed on their impact.

According to the study, Tuesday and Wednesday have higher engagement on the Great Deal Tires Facebook page, while Friday has higher engagement on Instagram. The study also provided valuable insights into post content and timing in order to increase the marketing impact of the posts.

The study provides an analytical framework for analyzing post and review timing on various company business pages, allowing marketers to initiate more user visits and interactions.

There are growing concerns among social studies professionals that social studies instruction is disappearing from elementary schools. These concerns have become more pressing as educational policies emphasize core curricula of reading, writing, mathematics, and science. Questions arise as to how social studies can resume its traditional role as one of these core curricula. One possibility is to have social studies included in the accountability movement through testing. This article contemplates the role of testing in impacting social studies instruction in the elementary curriculum through a comparative analysis of data collected from a study of practicing elementary teachers in two states: one in which social studies instruction is tested and the other in which social studies instruction is not tested.

The paper aims to improve understanding of the UK policy context for the social economy and thereby increase policy effectiveness in promoting the sector.

First the term “social economy” is discussed and defined. Then the range of policy responses to the social economy is reviewed. The interface between the social economy and policy is examined in detail using a case study initiative: time banks, a type of community currency which uses time as money.

UK government policy responds very positively to the social economy, viewing it as a potential provider of social cohesion, public service delivery, and sustainable development. However, the time bank case study reveals that existing social policy on work and employment is a barrier to realising the potential of the sector.

Proposals to overcome these policy barriers are suggested: they share the approach of redefining “work” and valuing and rewarding unpaid community efforts in the social economy.

The social economy is attracting increasing policy attention, but there is little empirical research in this area. This paper presents a review of existing policy and examines the impacts of policy in the social economy.

In England in recent years, concerns have been raised about the proportion of time social workers and other frontline children's social care practitioners spend carrying out desk‐based, administrative activities. This article aims to report time use activity data from front line workers on the amount of time spent on different activities to support children in need (as defined by the 1989 Children Act).

The data were collected from a range of sources including focus groups, event records (diaries completed by practitioners) and online surveys.

The proportion of time spent on direct and indirect activities varies according to the types of process. Those associated with ongoing support have the highest proportion of direct activity, whereas those associated with decision making, especially if a one‐off activity, have the highest proportion of administrative activities. The greater the needs of the child, the more direct and indirect support was given, but there was some variation across social work teams. But the activities of social workers are interconnected, making it difficult to provide conclusive evidence, but the concern about the imbalance between direct work and administrative tasks seems justified.

The findings highlight the complexity of exploring how social workers spend their time and how the proportion of time spent on direct and indirect activities is determined by the needs and circumstances of children and their families.

Wider contextual practice issues are also explored including the recent increases in referrals to children's social care and the use of electronic recording systems.

The breakdown of the activities using the approach outlined in the article increases transparency in understanding how social workers spend their time.

The study questions how spreading working hours through the day (night) and week might affect how people use their time and participate in leisure and social activities. We make use of closed two‐daystime‐use‐diaries and questionnaires asked employees of the Swiss railway (sample size of 1,400 diarydays), to access the implications of atypical forms of working hours on the workers’ leisure time as well as the time arrangements of the employees’ partners and children. The empirical investigation revealed that people who work shifts are less likely to live in households made up of several persons (an average of 13.6 per cent compared, with 18.8 per cent among people who do not work shifts). Shift workers who live together with others in a household are more likely to share a household with a partner who also works shifts: 30.6 per cent of partners/spouses also work shifts, compared with 14.4 per cent of partners/spouses of non‐shift workers. Subdividing households according to single‐ or multiple‐person households shows that shift workers achieve a slightly longer period of social time than non‐shift workers. On the one hand, this points to a social environment which adapts to the irregular and asynchronous working hours of the person concerned. On the other hand, comparison with sociological theory literature and other time‐budget studies brings out that the social framework conditions and the extent to which working hours can be planned exert a definite influence on a functioning social environment. The Swiss Federal Railways (SBB) tries – and manages – to take this into account, as the survey results clearly show. Thus, it is not possible to draw the conclusion that shift workers are in principle at greater risk from social isolation. In fact, it should be pointed out that the negative consequences of asynchronous working hours can be compensated for by individual adjustments. However, in this regard, certain operational and social framework conditions are a prerequisite for the success of these individual efforts.

In 2020, the coronavirus crisis ruptured societies and their everyday life around the globe. This chapter is a contribution to critically theorising the changes societies have undergone in the light of the coronavirus crisis. It asks: How have everyday life and everyday communication changed in the coronavirus crisis? How does capitalism shape everyday life and everyday communication during this crisis?

This chapter focuses on how social space, everyday life and everyday communication have changed in the coronavirus crisis.

The coronavirus crisis is an existential crisis of humanity and society. It radically confronts humans with death and the fear of death. This collective experience can on the one hand result in new forms of solidarity and socialism or can on the other hand, if ideology and the far-right prevail, advance war and fascism. Political action and political economy are decisive factors in such a profound crisis that shatters society and everyday life.

The ultimate purpose of this paper it to encourage international business scholars and managers to pay more attention to global social time when performing research and developing business strategy.

Strategic reference point (SRP) theory is used as a foundation to assist in visualizing the meaning of social time in a global context. From this grounding point, the authors make specific suggestions about the importance of the topic despite it being largely overlooked in international research dating back to Hofstede.

Time utility takes on a significantly different meaning when both a marketing manager's context and market are global. The conceptualization of time by different cultures can yield significantly different meanings based upon a culture's SRP(s) as to how social time is measured. Cultural differences necessitate having this flexible orientation towards social time to effectively develop and implement global marketing strategies. This research addresses the importance of breaking‐down the concept of social time into its fundamental dimensions and developing strategic implementation steps using the dimensions of time as competitive tools in the global marketing arena.

A six‐step process is developed to assist marketing researchers and managers in developing social time sensitive marketing strategies. Researchers and managers must be aware of the differences in social time perspectives and should analyze the situation to ascertain differences in the dimensions of each cross cultural group. An effort must be made to combine these varying social time perspectives into a consolidated social time foundation for the marketing team in the host country. Differences in social time must be taken into consideration when developing/executing strategies in other countries that have different social time perspectives.

Breaking new ground in international business, this paper sets the ground work for the future study of up to 12 different streams of research important to the understanding of (global) time in international business. Managerial tools are included in the discussion to assist in international marketing practice.

This study highlights the business failure experienced in pandemic times, its impact on entrepreneurs' perception of failure and the reciprocal relationship between entrepreneurs' perception of failure and individual ambidexterity.

The study provides empirical evidence on interpreting the long-term outcomes of business failure in pandemic times and develops a deeper insight by utilizing a two-year research design (time 1: 2020 and time 2: first half of 2021). It draws on data from 200 entrepreneurs who experienced business failure in the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic times which is a global crisis.

The results revealed that both challenge and hindrance appraisals of failure are associated with individual ambidexterity over time. Self-efficacy and social valuation of re-entry decisions are mediators between hindrance appraisal and individual ambidexterity on both time 1 and time 2. Moreover, there is a positive reciprocal relationship between self-efficacy and ambidexterity throughout the two time periods. In regard to participants' current employment status, hindrance appraisal, self-efficacy and perceptions of ambidexterity linkages were found to be significantly different in terms of unemployment and employment.

To the best of the author's knowledge, it is the first time that the individual ambidexterity of failed entrepreneurs was explored after hard times in the pandemic. It comprehensively helps to understand the importance of cognitive appraisal of hard times and identifies the perceptional and behavioral consequences of failure in entrepreneurship.