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This research aims to understand the smartphone security behavior using protection motivation theory (PMT) and tests the current PMT model employing statistical and predictive analysis using machine learning (ML) algorithms.

This study employs a total of 241 questionnaire-based responses in a nonmandated security setting and uses multimethod approach. The research model includes both security intention and behavior making use of a valid smartphone security behavior scale. Structural equation modeling (SEM) – explanatory analysis was used in understanding the relationships. ML algorithms were employed to predict the accuracy of the PMT model in an experimental evaluation.

The results revealed that the threat-appraisal element of the PMT did not have any influence on the intention to secure smartphone while the response efficacy had a role in explaining the smartphone security intention and behavior. The ML predictive analysis showed that the protection motivation elements were able to predict smartphone security intention and behavior with an accuracy of 73%.

The findings imply that the response efficacy of the individuals be improved by cybersecurity training programs in order to enhance the protection motivation. Researchers can test other PMT models, including fear appeals to improve the predictive accuracy.

This study is the first study that makes use of theory-driven SEM analysis and data-driven ML analysis to bridge the gap between smartphone security’s theory and practice.

Drawing on protection motivation theory (PMT) and expectancy theory, this study aims to investigate consumers’ lodging consumption intentions during a pandemic crisis.

The research survey was conducted during the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic (August, 2020) in the USA to investigate consumers’ lodging intentions amidst the pandemic crisis. PLS-SEM and multiple regression were conducted to explore answers to proposed research questions.

The research finds that, during the pandemic crisis, consumers’ lodging consumption intentions are subject to both their internal protection motivation evaluations and the external prevention practices implemented by the lodging facilities regardless of property types and travel purposes. Notably, the research finds that consumers are willing to make efforts and pay extra for a safe stay at lodging facilities.

This research contributes to the literature regarding the applications of PMT and expectancy theory from a crisis management perspective, and it provides implications and guidelines to the crisis management practices in the lodging industry.

The current research examines the specific protection motivation appraisal factors and prevention practices significantly impacting consumers’ decisions in terms of willingness to stay at various lodging facilities (hotels and non-hotel homestay/short-term rental properties) for different purposes (business and leisure) and to pay premiums for a safe stay.

Search engines, the most popular online services, are associated with several concerns. Users are concerned about the unauthorized processing of their personal data, as well as about search engines keeping track of their search preferences. Various search engines have been introduced to address these concerns, claiming that they protect users’ privacy. The authors call these search engines privacy-preserving search engines (PPSEs). This paper aims to investigate the factors that motivate search engine users to use PPSEs.

This study adopted protection motivation theory (PMT) and associated its constructs with subjective norms to build a comprehensive research model. The authors tested the research model using survey data from 830 search engine users worldwide.

The results confirm the interpretive power of PMT in privacy-related decision-making and show that users are more inclined to take protective measures when they consider that data abuse is a more severe risk and that they are more vulnerable to data abuse. Furthermore, the results highlight the importance of subjective norms in predicting and determining PPSE use. Because subjective norms refer to perceived social influences from important others to engage or refrain from protective behavior, the authors reveal that the recommendation from people that users consider important motivates them to take protective measures and use PPSE.

Despite its interesting results, this research also has some limitations. First, because the survey was conducted online, the study environment was less controlled. Participants may have been disrupted or affected, for example, by the presence of others or background noise during the session. Second, some of the survey items could possibly be misinterpreted by the respondents in the study questionnaire, as they did not have access to clarifications that a researcher could possibly provide. Third, another limitation refers to the use of the Amazon Turk tool. According Paolacci and Chandler (2014) in comparison to the US population, the MTurk workers are more educated, younger and less religiously and politically diverse. Fourth, another limitation of this study could be that Actual Use of PPSE is self-reported by the participants. This could cause bias because it is argued that internet users’ statements may be in contrast with their actions in real life or in an experimental scenario (Berendt et al., 2005, Jensen et al., 2005); Moreover, some limitations of this study emerge from the use of PMT as the background theory of the study. PMT identifies the main factors that affect protection motivation, but other environmental and cognitive factors can also have a significant role in determining the way an individual’s attitude is formed. As Rogers (1975) argued, PMT as proposed does not attempt to specify all of the possible factors in a fear appeal that may affect persuasion, but rather a systematic exposition of a limited set of components and cognitive mediational processes that may account for a significant portion of the variance in acceptance by users. In addition, as Tanner et al. (1991) argue, the ‘PMT’s assumption that the subjects have not already developed a coping mechanism is one of its limitations. Finally, another limitation is that the sample does not include users from China, which is the second most populated country. Unfortunately, DuckDuckGo has been blocked in China, so it has not been feasible to include users from China in this study.

The proposed model and, specifically, the subjective norms construct proved to be successful in predicting PPSE use. This study demonstrates the need for PPSE to exhibit and advertise the technology and measures they use to protect users’ privacy. This will contribute to the effort to persuade internet users to use these tools.

This study sought to explore the privacy attitudes of search engine users using PMT and its constructs’ association with subjective norms. It used the PMT to elucidate users’ perceptions that motivate them to privacy adoption behavior, as well as how these perceptions influence the type of search engine they use. This research is a first step toward gaining a better understanding of the processes that drive people’s motivation to, or not to, protect their privacy online by means of using PPSE. At the same time, this study contributes to search engine vendors by revealing that users’ need to be persuaded not only about their policy toward privacy but also by considering and implementing new strategies of diffusion that could enhance the use of the PPSE.

This research is a first step toward gaining a better understanding of the processes that drive people’s motivation to, or not to, protect their privacy online by means of using PPSEs.

The purpose of this paper is to investigate the factors affecting citizens’ intentions toward sustainable tourism based on a research model integrating two theories: protection motivation theory (PMT) and theory of interpersonal behavior (TIB).

After in-depth interviews with ten people, the authors determined the official research model and builds a complete survey. With the random sampling method, data were collected from 628 Vietnamese respondents at some schools, enterprises and supermarkets. Using the PLS-SEM method, measurement and structural models were evaluated before testing the research hypotheses about the influence of factors on intention toward sustainable tourism.

This paper shows that all constructs of the integrated model PMT-TIB are related to intention toward sustainable tourism, and response efficacy is the most influential factor among the factors included in the research model. PMT-TIB integration model is proven to be superior to the original PMT and TIB models when studying factors affecting intention toward sustainable tourism.

The main limitation of this paper is that the PMT-TIB integration model only mentions motivational and interpersonal factors that influence intention toward sustainable tourism.

The findings indicate that state management agencies and enterprises need to develop specific action programs about each harmful environmental pollution caused by unsustainable tourism, raising awareness about the possibility of environmental protection through sustainable tourism.

This study contributes to the existing theoretical framework by integrating PMT and TIB for the first time in explaining intention toward sustainable tourism. This paper gives implications for Vietnam in particular and developing countries in general in promoting sustainable tourism intentions toward sustainable development according to the government’s goals.

本文的目的是基于保护动机理论（PMT）和人际行为理论（TIB）理论相结合的研究模型, 调查影响公民可持续旅游意愿的因素。

在对10人进行深入访谈后, 作者确定了正式研究模型并建立了完整的调查。 采用随机抽样的方法, 从部分学校、企业和超市收集了628名越南受访者的数据。 在检验有关因素对可持续旅游意向影响的研究假设之前, 使用 PLS-SEM 方法对测量和结构模型进行了评估。

本文表明, 综合模型 PMT-TIB 的所有构造都与可持续旅游的意愿相关, 而响应效能是研究模型中包含的因素中影响最大的因素。 在研究影响可持续旅游意愿的因素时, PMT-TIB集成模型被证明优于原始PMT和TIB模型。

本文的主要局限性是 PMT-TIB 整合模型仅提到动机和人际因素影响可持续旅游的意愿。

研究结果表明, 国家管理机构和企业需要针对不可持续旅游业造成的各种有害环境污染制定具体的行动计划, 提高人们对通过可持续旅游业保护环境的可能性的认识。

本研究首次整合PMT和TIB来解释可持续旅游业的意图, 为现有的理论框架做出了贡献。 论文对越南和广大发展中国家在促进可持续旅游意愿、根据政府目标实现可持续发展方面给出了启示。

El objetivo de este artículo es investigar los factores que influyen en la intención de los ciudadanos hacia el turismo sostenible basándose en un modelo conceptual que integra la teoría de la motivación hacia la protección (PMT) y la teoría del comportamiento interpersonal (TIB).

Tras la realización de entrevistas en profundidad con 10 personas, los autores determinaron el modelo de investigación y elaboraron un cuestionario. Utilizando un muestreo aleatorio para la recogida de datos, se obtuvieron 628 encuestados vietnamitas en escuelas, empresas y supermercados. Se empleó el análisis PLS-SEM para evaluar los modelos de medición y modelos estructurales antes del contraste de las hipótesis de investigación sobre la influencia de los factores en la intención hacia el turismo sostenible.

Este artículo muestra que todos los constructos del modelo integrado PMT-TIB están relacionados con la intención hacia el turismo sostenible y la eficacia de la respuesta es el factor más influyente entre los factores incluidos en el modelo conceptual. Se comprueba que el modelo integrador PMT-TIB es superior a los modelos PMT y TIB originales al estudiar los factores que afectan la intención hacia el turismo sostenible.

La principal limitación de este artículo es que el modelo de integración PMT-TIB solo utiliza factores motivacionales e interpersonales que influyen en la intención hacia el turismo sostenible.

Las conclusiones indican que los organismos estatales de gestión y las empresas deben desarrollar programas de acción específicos sobre cada contaminación ambiental nociva causada por el turismo insostenible, concienciando sobre la posibilidad de proteger el medio ambiente a través del turismo sostenible.

Este estudio contribuye al marco teórico existente al integrar por primera vez la PMT y la TIB en la explicación de la intención hacia el turismo sostenible. El trabajo ofrece implicaciones para Vietnam en particular y para los países en desarrollo en general en la promoción de las intenciones de turismo sostenible, hacia un desarrollo sostenible de acuerdo con los objetivos gubernamentales.

This study explores the acceptance of protection technology, namely, exposure detection apps, in the context of the Covid-19 pandemic. Unlike other situations, the context of the pandemic is characterized by large levels of threat and fear which largely affect the human decision-making process. To identify such characteristics, this study investigates the acceptance of exposure detection apps from the perspective of protection motivation theory (PMT). It examines how the perceived risk of Covid-19, perceived fear of Covid-19, self-efficacy, response efficacy and protection motivation interact to predict the acceptance of exposure detection apps.

Data were collected from 306 Jordanian participants, and structural equation modelling was used for data analysis.

The results reveal that acceptance of these apps is triggered by the perceived risk of Covid-19, which increases the experienced level of fear. The latter then initiates a compelling desire or motivation to protect oneself by using the recommended adaptive response (exposure detection app). The results show that an increased level of self-efficacy and perceived efficacy of exposure detection apps also contribute to the development of protection motivation and later the intent to use exposure detection apps.

This study contributes to the technology acceptance domain by developing a context-driven model of the key characteristics of pandemics that lead to different patterns of technology acceptance. The key components in designing effective marketing campaigns to prompt the use of exposures detection apps are discussed.

The current advancements in technologies and the internet industry provide users with many innovative digital devices for entertainment, communication and trade. However, simultaneous development and the rising sophistication of cybercrimes bring new challenges. Micro businesses use technology like how people use it at home, but face higher cyber risks during riskier transactions, with human error playing a significant role. Moreover, information security researchers have often studied individuals’ adherence to compliance behaviour in response to cyber threats. The study aims to examine the protection motivation theory (PMT)-based model to understand individuals’ tendency to adopt secure behaviours.

The study focuses on Australian micro businesses since they are more susceptible to cyberattacks due to the least security measures in place. Out of 877 questionnaires distributed online to Australian micro business owners through survey panel provider “Dynata,” 502 (N = 502) complete responses were included. Structural equational modelling was used to analyse the relationships among the variables.

The results indicate that all constructs of the protection motivation, except threat susceptibility, successfully predict the user protective behaviours. Also, increased cybersecurity costs negatively impact users’ safe cyber practices.

The study has critical implications for understanding micro business owners’ cyber security behaviours. The study contributes to the current knowledge of cyber security in micro businesses through the lens of PMT.

The COVID-19 pandemic has generated unprecedented public fear, impeding both individuals’ social life and the travel industry as a whole. China was one of the first major countries to experience the COVID-19 outbreaks and recovery from the pandemic. The demand for outings is increasing in the post-COVID-19 world, leading to the recovery of the ride-sharing industry. Integrating protection motivation theory and the theory of reasoned action, this study aims to investigate ride-sharing customers’ self-protection motivation to provide anti-pandemic measures and promote the resilience of ride-sharing industry.

This study followed a two-phase mixed-methods design. In the first phase, the authors executed a qualitative study with 30 interviews. In the second phase, the authors used the results of the interviews to inform the design of a survey, with which 272 responses were collected. Both studies were conducted in China.

The present results indicate that customers’ perceived vulnerability of COVID-19 and perceived COVID protection efficacy (self-efficacy and response efficacy) are positively correlated with their attitude toward self-protection, thus leading to their self-protection motivation during the rides. Moreover, subjective norms and customers’ distrust appear to also impact their self-protection motivation during the ride-sharing service.

The present research provides one of the first in-depth studies, to the best of the authors’ knowledge, on customers’ protection motivation in ride-sharing services in the new normal. The empirical evidence provides important insights for ride-sharing service providers and managers in the post-pandemic world and promote the resilience of ride-sharing industry.

The purpose of this paper is to examine the applicability of Preference Similarity Theory (PST) and Protection Motivation Theory (PMT) in identifying the target audience and developing effective marketing strategies, particularly in non-Muslim countries, to increase the market growth and reach of sukuk to broader investor groups and provide recommendations for such strategies.

After separately examining the effects of PST and PMT on marketing sukuk, recommendations are presented from a shared perspective of these two theories.

The findings of this study suggest that understanding the values, beliefs and perceptions of potential investors is crucial for effectively marketing sukuk investments, especially in non-Muslim countries. The PST and PMT provide useful frameworks for tailoring sukuk offerings and communicating effectively about the risks and benefits of sukuk investments to attract investors who identify with the values and beliefs embodied in sukuk.

To the best of the author's knowledge, this is the first paper to examine the marketing of sukuk in non-Muslim countries. This study is also the first paper to discuss sukuk in the context of PST and PMT. In addition, this study is expected to guide banks in the marketing of sukuk.

Few studies have adopted social psychology theories to understand the medical tourism decision-making process. The purpose of this study is to fill the said gap by suggesting the adoption of two social cognition models: the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) and protection motivation theory (PMT), to predict medical tourism behavioural intention, as well as compare their predictive power by integrating TBP and PMT in a single model.

A quantitative method has been adopted. There were 265 international tourists from various regions who visited Malaysia (one of the main medical tourism players in Asia), who were asked to complete the survey questionnaire. Data was analysed using the partial least squares structural equation modelling technique.

The results of this study provided support and validated the well-developed research models of TPB and PMT. Although PMT appears to be a more concrete and specific framework, the TPB model results have a slight advantage. TPB results emphasised the important roles of attitude, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control in developing behavioural intentions, and thus directly linked to the development of pull marketing strategies. PMT results emphasised the important roles of perceived threats and coping appraisal of health care in developing push strategies for medical tourism.

The research illustrates the need for rigorous examination of the ability of behavioural theories. The findings can aid in scrutinising their shortcomings and their readiness to modify, integrate and enhance in a more constructive manner when they address the health-education interventions, especially in a medical tourism context.

很少有研究采用社会心理学理论来理解医疗旅游的决策过程。这项研究的目的是通过建议采用两种社会认知模型（计划行为理论（TPB）和保护动机理论（PMT））来填补上述空白。通过将TBP和PMT集成到一个模型中, 预测医疗旅游行为意愿并比较其预测能力。

采用定量方法。样本包括265名访问了马来西亚（亚洲主要的医疗旅游公司之一）的国际游客, 他们被邀请填写调查问卷。研究使用偏最小二乘结构方程建模技术分析数据。

这项研究的结果支持并验证了TPB和PMT完善的研究模型。尽管PMT似乎是一个更具体的框架, 但TPB模型结果却有一点优势。TPB模型的结果强调了态度, 主观规范和感知的行为控制在形成行为意愿中的重要作用, 因此直接与拉动式营销策略的发展相关。 PMT结果强调了感知到的威胁和对医疗保健的应对评估在制定医疗旅游推动策略中的重要作用。

该研究阐述了严格检验行为理论能力的必要性。当研究结果针对健康教育干预措施时, 尤其是在医疗旅游领域, 这些发现可以帮助审查它们的缺点以及它们是否准备好以更具建设性的方式进行修改, 整合和改善。

医疗旅游, 游客的行为意愿, 保护动机理论, 计划行为理论, 模型比较, 马来西亚

研究论文

Pocos estudios han adoptado teorías de psicología social para comprender el proceso de toma de decisiones de turismo médico. El objetivo de esta investigación es llenar dicho vacío sugiriendo la adopción de dos modelos de cognición social: la teoría del comportamiento planificado (TPB) y la teoría de la motivación de protección (PMT), para predecir la intención conductual del turismo médico y comparar su poder predictivo integrando TBP y PMT en un solo modelo.

se ha adoptado un método cuantitativo. Hubo 265 turistas internacionales de diversas regiones que visitaron Malasia (uno de los principales actores del turismo médico en Asia) a quienes se les pidió que completaran el cuestionario de la encuesta. Los datos se analizaron utilizando la técnica de modelado de ecuaciones estructurales de mínimos cuadrados parciales.

Los resultados de este estudio brindaron apoyo y validaron los modelos de investigación bien desarrollados de TPB y PMT. Aunque PMT parece ser un marco más concreto y específico, los resultados del modelo TPB tienen una ligera ventaja. Los resultados del TPB enfatizaron los roles importantes de las actitudes, las normas subjetivas y el control conductual percibido en el desarrollo de las intenciones conductuales y, por lo tanto, directamente vinculados con el desarrollo de estrategias de marketing pull. Los resultados de PMT enfatizaron los roles importantes de las amenazas percibidas y la evaluación de la atención médica en el desarrollo de estrategias de empuje para el turismo médico.

La investigación ilustra la necesidad de un examen riguroso de la capacidad de las teorías conductuales. Los hallazgos pueden ayudar a analizar sus deficiencias y su disposición a modificar, integrar y mejorar de una manera más constructiva cuando abordan las intervenciones de educación sanitaria, especialmente en un contexto de turismo médico.

Protection motivation theory (PMT) explains that the intention to cope with information security risks is based on informed threat and coping appraisals. However, people cannot always make appropriate assessments due to possible ignorance and cognitive biases. This study proposes a research model that introduces four antecedent factors from ignorance and bias perspectives into the PMT model and empirically tests this model with data from a survey of electronic waste (e-waste) handling.

The data collected from 356 Chinese samples are analyzed via structural equation modeling (SEM).

The results revealed that for threat appraisal, optimistic bias leads to a lower perception of risks. However, factual ignorance (lack of knowledge of risks) does not significantly affect the perceived threat. For coping appraisal, practical ignorance (lack of knowledge of coping with risks) leads to low response efficacy and self-efficacy and high perceptions of coping cost, but the illusion of control overestimates response efficacy and self-efficacy.

First, this study addresses a new type of information security problem in e-waste handling. Second, this study extends the PMT model by exploring the roles of ignorance and bias as antecedents. Finally, the authors reinvestigate the basic constructs of PMT to identify how rational threat and coping assessments affect user intentions to cope with data security risks.