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Examines the wide range of liquid and solid level sensors, their technologies and commercial application.

Provides background information on trends in level sensing, on how each type works and the various applications. Some selection criteria are given.

There is a wide range of level sensors for every target liquid and solid sensing application, but the sector is technologically mature. There are some new application areas deriving from legislation and climate change.

Provides information of value for those involved with sensor applications.

The purpose of this study is to demonstrate the usage of three-dimensionally (3D) printed polylactic acid (PLA)-carbon black (CB) conductive polymer composite in the measurement of the void fraction and liquid level.

PLA-CB conductive polymer composite is 3D printed through fused deposition modelling (FDM) technique and used as a capacitive sensor for void fraction measurement and liquid level sensing. The sensitivity of 3D printed ring and concave type capacitive sensors are compared for void fraction measurement. The effect of electrode length, thickness and pipe dimension on the capacitance achievable for the particular void fraction is studied. Concept of fringing capacitance is used for the sensing of liquid level.

Compared to the concave design comprising four electrodes, the ring-type capacitive sensor produced better results in void fraction measurement. Increase in pipe diameter and electrode length results in the enhancement of capacitance arising from specific void fraction. For a 100 mm diameter pipe, the capacitance of the 150 mm-long concave electrode (0.4 mm thick) increased from 9.98 to 67.77 pF as the void fraction decreased from 100% to 0%. Development of the fringing capacitance in 3D printed PLA-CB composite helps in the measurement of liquid level. Both parallel finger topology and interdigital electrode configuration are able to sense the liquid level.

Ability of the 3D printed conductive PLA-CB composite to act as a capacitive sensor is experimentally analysed. Performance of different electrode configuration is tested for both void fraction measurement and liquid level sensing. Results of experimentation prove that FDM printed PLA-CB composite is suitable for the void fraction and liquid level measurement.

This paper aims to propose a liquid level sensor with a multi-S-bend plastic optical fiber.

The principle of liquid sensing used is based on the leakage of higher modes out of the fiber and repeated regeneration in the following bend sections. Therefore, a propagation loss was introduced in every bend section of the fiber with the loss depending on the refractive index of the environment.

Therefore, a continue shift in the liquid level can be detected by observing changes in the propagation loss of the fiber. The sensor features compactness and a flexible resolution.

Compared with the exited ones, the sensor has capability of continue liquid measurement and a greater measurement range.

The measurement of level is critical to many manufacturing operations and yet this supposedly straightforward task is full of traps for the unwary.

Avery‐Hardoll automatic bottom loading equipment has been in widespread use for loading road tankers and aircraft refuellers during recent years. Now a new Avery‐Hardoll system, known as jet automatic bottom loading, has been introduced to give even greater simplicity and lower costs.

The purpose of this work is to make an IoT-based low-cost and power-efficient portable system to control irrigation using a threshold value algorithm and to measure soil-irrigation-related parameters such as soil moisture, soil temperature, humidity and air temperature.

This paper presents a threshold value algorithm to optimize power consumption and to control irrigation process.

The system uses ESP-12F 8266 as the main microcontroller unit to monitor and control irrigation system. The system also consists of an actuator system that triggers automatically based on a threshold value algorithm. An open-source cloud platform is used to monitor and store all the data for future perspective. To make the system run for a long time without any human intervention, a solar panel is used as an alternate source of energy for charging the 12V lithium-ion battery. The battery takes 2.64 h for full charging considering peak intensity of sunlight. A capacitive moisture sensor is included using less expensive 555 timer and calibrated to measure water content in the soil. The 555 timer is used in astable mode of configuration to generate a signal of 572 KHz. The calibrated sensor data when compared with a standard SEN0193 moisture sensor shows an error of 3.4%. The prototype model is made to optimize the power consumption. This can be achieved by utilizing sleep mode of ESP-12F 8266. The total cost involved to make the system is 3900.55 Indian rupees and around US$54.90.

The device is tested in a flower garden during winter season of Nagaland, India, for 75 days to collect all the data and to automate the irrigation process.

The proposed threshold value algorithm optimizes the power consumption of the device, and wastage of water is reduced up to 60% as compared to the traditional method of irrigation.

This paper aims to determine the important role of acoustic wave devices in sensing applications such as automotive applications, industrial applications and commercial applications.

The paper provides a comprehensive overview of acoustic wave technology and highlights an example of one commercial implementation of its technology for sensing application: a commercially available real‐time, online threaded bolt viscosity sensor.

The commercially available viscosity sensor can be readily applied in field operations or installed directly on the equipment for continuous monitoring of viscosity to enable technicians/mechanics to test the oil in minutes.

The paper introduces a new product for the sensing industry.