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Adam Smith's dictum that the division of labour is limited by the extent of the market is invoked as an explanation of observed intra‐industry trade. The strongest results from empirical studies of intra‐industry trade (relating it to level of development, time, falling trade barriers, and a manufacturing dummy) are all consistent with this view. Moreover, it makes it unnecessary to argue whether such trade reflects an aggregation problem, or to rely on new theories of international trade based on product differentiation and scale economies (neither of which have performed well in econometric work in this area).

This study investigates whether a higher level of pre‐natal testosterone, as indicated by the 2D: 4D digit ratio, is a correlate of psychopathy and cognitive empathy. The main research hypothesis predicts that 2D: 4D digit ratios will correlate negatively with psychopathy scores and positively with cognitive empathy scores. The study facilitates a within‐subjects correlational design, using a quasi‐experimental method consisting of questionnaires and digit measurements. Fifty‐four participants volunteered and were gathered via purposive and convenience sampling. Each participant completed a self‐report psychopathy scale, a cognitive empathy test, a verbal IQ test and a scan of both hands. The scans were later measured and computed for digit ratios. T‐tests, multiple partial correlations and multiple regression found that, contrary to the research hypothesis, a higher level of pre‐natal oestrogen, as indicated by a larger 2D: 4D digit ratio, is a positive correlate of psychopathy in females, and a positive correlate of callous affect (psychopathy sub‐scale) in males, at less than 0.01 probability levels. Gender is also a correlate of psychopathy, as males scored significantly higher than females at 0.01 probability levels. This result sheds an interesting new light on the physiological correlates of psychopathy and the role that pre‐natal oestrogen plays in organisational effects on the brain during pre‐ and post‐natal development.

This study was conducted on children and adolescents from the three tribal cultures from Northern Tanzania: the Hadza, the Datoga and the Iraqw. The comparative data on aggression and conflict management skills were measured at Endomaga Boarding School, Lake Eyasi, Mangola in Northern Tanzania, in 2005‐2006. The final sample included 219 children, ranging from 7 to 20 years of age. No sex differences were found in self‐ratings or frequency of occurrence of physical, verbal and indirect aggression in Iraqw children and adolescents, or in self‐ratings in Hadza. Hadza boys reported a higher occurrence of physical and indirect aggression during the previous week compared to girls. No differences between the sexes were found in constructive conflict resolution and third‐party interventions practiced by Iraqw and Datoga children and self‐ratings in Hadza. Hadza boys reported a higher frequency of constructive conflict resolution and third‐party interventions compared to girls. Significant sexual dimorphism on the 2D:4D ratio was found for our African sample. A significant negative correlation between the right hand 2D:4D ratio and ratings on physical aggression was found for the girls. The girls with the lowest finger index estimated themselves as more verbally aggressive, compared to girls with a medium 2D:4D ratio.

The study aims to investigate the relationship between chief executive officers' (CEOs') prenatal testosterone exposure, absorptive capacity and e-commerce adoption by small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs).

Based on a study of 1,519 SMEs led by a male CEO in China, the impact of entrepreneur's digital ratio on e-commerce adoption is empirically analyzed through a multivariate logistic model.

The results show that the second-to-fourth digit ratio (2D:4D), a reverse measurement of prenatal testosterone exposure, is negatively correlated with the adoption of e-commerce by SMEs. This evidence suggests that CEOs with high prenatal testosterone exposure have a higher probability of adopting e-commerce. In addition, this research indicates a positive correlation between absorptive capacity, which is defined by market innovation, process innovation and marketing innovation, and the adoption of e-commerce by SMEs.

This research can contribute to the discussion by providing new insights into the antecedents of the adoption of e-commerce in SMEs.

One‐time password systems provide great strengths over conventional password systems: protection against over‐the‐shoulder, eavesdropping, replay, etc. The Grid Data Security authentication system is a server‐challenge‐based system. It has advantages over other one‐time password systems since it does not require pre‐installed software nor special devices to carry on. However, there are some weaknesses. The purpose of this paper is to analyze the weaknesses of the one‐time password system and provide practical guidelines for using the one‐time password system.

This paper statistically analyzes the weakness of the Grid Data Security authentication system and simulates attacks to the system to confirm the discovered weakness. The paper also suggests ways to reduce the discovered vulnerability using mathematical formula and offers practical guideline for using the system. It also identifies the system's strength on access authentication on mobile communication.

The Grid Data Security authentication system which is a server‐challenge‐based one‐time password system has a great weakness when an attacker gains its user‐interface screen and its GridCode. The discovered vulnerability can be improved by changing cardinality of the GridCode. This paper creates a formula that can help a system manager to decide the security level and its required cardinality of GridCode and length of password. It also identifies the system's strengths on mobile communication.

The paper provides a practical tool for security managers to identify requirements of cardinality of GridCode and password length for certain levels of security.

The purpose of this article is to introduce, describe, and critically examine the IBM and Hewlett‐Packard PANOSE systems of (electronic) font classification. Microsoft's TrueType Font (TTF) file format allows font developers the option of classifying their fonts according to one or both systems, and writing that information into a special location in the TTF file for use by other software.

A comprehensive survey of 13,000 TTF files was examined for information about their use of either classification system.

The classification systems are intended to help perform font substitution, as used when (part of) a document asks to be displayed in a font that is not present on the user's computer system, in which case the next nearest font is automatically chosen. However, of the nine sources of font compendia examined, only three had supplied adequate information about their fonts’ classifications in order to make this process workable. The other six sources had almost no coverage. When a font was classified by both classification systems, the two systems mapped poorly on to each other, suggesting that at least one system must be ill‐specified. PANOSE, the more detailed and slightly more popular system, showed poor internal consistency.

Sampling of the universe of fonts was opportunistic, and avoided expensive font developers who may be more conscientious adopters of the classification systems. The reliance on historic secondary data means that it is not always possible to distinguish between limitations of the systems per se and limitations of the users of the systems. This article's arguments are based on data derived from difficult‐to‐picture distinctions.

Fonts are rarely classified at the source of manufacture or distribution. To compensate for this shortcoming, software tools are required that can classify TTF files at the point of use (i.e. on one's own system) and fill in the information which is missing from the TTF files found there. Furthermore, a better classification of fonts is required, in particular one that does justice to the variety and richness of display fonts. This should break free from the hard‐to‐perceive minutiae of traditional, historically‐derived methods. Instead, it should be psychologically grounded in the distinctions that people (i.e. the users) see in fonts, rather than those taught to graphic designers.

Provides an examination of font classification in TTF files from three angles and calls for an empirically‐driven font classification.

This paper aims to investigate the role of nature and nurture in students’ entrepreneurial intention (EIs). In doing so, the study examines the relationship between prenatal testosterone exposure (2D:4D), risk-taking propensity, entrepreneurial self-efficacy and EIs. Moreover, the moderating role of entrepreneurial education between entrepreneurial self-efficacy and EI is also investigated.

In line with previous studies on EI, the authors tested hypotheses based on quantitative data obtained from university students.

Data were analyzed with the help of the structural equation modeling technique, and the results revealed that all the hypothesized relationships were supported.

The field of entrepreneurship has become an attractive area of research for practitioners and academics. One tinted area of research in entrepreneurship is the investigation of EI because it is a good predictor of entrepreneurial behavior. Several antecedents of EIs have been recognized in the literature ranging from personality traits to environmental factors. However, less is known about the role of biology in entrepreneurship. Incorporating biological factors in the field of entrepreneurship appears to be theoretically viable and sound. Thus, this study investigates the effect of biological factors in the presence of psychological factors on EIs, which is a unique contribution to the literature on entrepreneurship.

The use of Statistical Process Control (SPC) techniques for monitoring manufacturing processes in mass production is relatively easy. In small‐batch manufacture, however, such techniques can be difficult to implement due to lack of sufficient data to establish control decisions for control charts. Most of the early proposed solutions emphasized the product rather than the process, whereas many of the recently developed approaches favoured monitoring the process and not the product. All such approaches suggest the use of data transformation. The aim is to normalize the differences in the process mean and the variability for different components. Once an appropriate transformation is made, then sample data related to different components can be plotted on the same chart using sample statistics of the transformed data. An important part of transformation is the determination of process parameters for the component. Several methods for determining such parameters have already been suggested in the literature. Presents an alternative method for estimating the process parameters, based on the Group Technology (GT) concept. Generally speaking, the methodology consists of four steps, i.e. Classification and Coding (C&C), family formation, retrieving data, and estimating the process parameters. Discusses the characteristics of a C&C system for SPC and presents the details of its structure. Finally, based on the proposed structure, uses a flowchart to explain the procedure along with a practical application.

Drawing on the behavioral theory of the firm (BTF), this study aims to understand the role of organizational slack in the manufacturing industry during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Using panel data of publicly traded manufacturing firms in the USA over a 12-quarter time period, this study uses generalized least squares modeling to test the hypothesized relationships.

Results show that the COVID-19 pandemic has a negative impact on manufacturing firms’ performance and organizational slack weakens the negative relationship between the COVID-19 pandemic and firm performance. In addition, when a positive performance aspirational gap (PAG) exists, the negative relationship between COVID-19 pandemic and firm performance in firms with high levels of organizational slack is further weakened.

This study contributes to organizational studies by investigating the contingent impact of organizational slack in the setting of COVID-19 pandemic. This study also contributes to the BTF by investigating how firm PAG, combined with the abundance of organizational slack, moderates the impact of COVID-19 pandemic on firm performance.

This paper aims to examine the effect of executive compensation incentives, specifically CEO inside debt holdings, on the choice of industry specialist auditor.

High inside debt holdings are expected to constrain excessive managerial risk-taking and align the interests of managers and outside debtholders. The authors hypothesize that reduced debtholders’ expropriation concerns will decrease the demand for high audit quality, measured by industry specialization. The authors investigate a sample of US firms from 2006 to 2018 using OLS regression and use CEO relative leverage to proxy for CEO inside debt holdings. The authors conduct an additional two-stage least squares regression analysis to address potential endogeneity issues.

The paper finds that firms with higher levels of CEO inside debt tend not to appoint an auditor with industry specialization. This result is consistent with the notion that inside debt mitigates agency conflicts between managers and debtholders, reducing the demand for high-quality audits as a monitoring mechanism. The paper also finds that among firms which are excessively leveraged, those with higher levels of CEO inside debt tend to appoint an industry specialist auditor.

The findings contribute to the literature on agency cost and auditor choice by demonstrating that CEO inside debt has both substitutive and complementary effects on demand for industry specialist auditors.