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The purpose of this paper is twofold: first, to examine a customer orientation mechanism through which abusive supervision influences retail salespeople’s job performance; and second, to investigate how abusive supervision’s effects may be moderated by the same leader’s use of contingent punishment and contingent reward.

Two studies provide consistent findings. Study 1 used the field survey data from 129 salespeople in 42 retail stores. The proposed moderated mediation model was estimated using the random coefficient modeling technique. Findings were replicated in Study 2, in which data were collected from a sample of 679 US retail salespeople recruited through M-Turk.

Results from both studies show that abusive supervision reduces salespeople’s job performance through lowering their customer orientation. Furthermore, the use of contingent punishment from the same supervisor buffers abusive supervision’s detrimental effect, whereas the use of contingent reward augments it.

The issues the authors address in this research have significant implications for the literature of abusive supervision and retail selling. First, the authors contribute to the abusive supervision literature by pointing it out that the negative effect of abusive supervision can spill over to organizations’ external stakeholders, namely, customers. Previous research on abusive supervision has mainly focused on how abused subordinates exhibit hostile acts directed against the supervisor, coworkers and the organization (Tepper et al., 2017), with little attention paid to abusive supervision’s impact on organizations’ external stakeholders such as customers. This research fills the void by placing impaired customer-orientation as a critical consequence of abusive supervision. Second, this research tests a contingent self-regulation impairment model of abusive supervision and advances our understanding about how the same supervisor’s functional leadership behaviors (contingent reward/punishment) may set contingencies for the effect of abusive supervision on employee outcomes. This investigation clears the doubts about whether the use of functional leadership behaviors along with abusive supervision buffers or aggravates the detrimental effect of the latter. Finally, this study’s findings shed new insights to marketing practitioners, especially in understanding how salespeople may vent their stress on the customers when being abused by their supervisors. Without this in mind, supervisors may not be aware of the consequences of their abusive behavior and may even develop an illusion that such a practice worked. This research shows that abusive supervision can lower employees’ customer orientation, which will hurt the company in the long run.

The findings intend to provide important guidelines for companies to develop effective workshops and training programs to combat the detrimental effects of abusive supervision in the retailing industry. For example, the findings shed new insights in understanding how employees may vent their stress on the customers when being abused by their supervisors. Without this in mind, supervisors may not be aware of the consequences of their abusive behavior and may even develop an illusion that such a practice worked. Another important managerial implication of this research is that the use of contingent reward after mistreating subordinates can backfire. Supervisor abuses, followed by a contingent reward, send an inconsistent signal to the employee that creates confusion and strain. Inconsistent actions from the supervisor also produce ethical tensions that reduce customer-oriented behaviors and a company’s ability to serve the customer (Friend et al., 2020). These training programs are important methods to combat the detrimental effects of abusive supervision in the workforce.

This research draws on the contingent self-regulation impairment model as an overarching framework to unpack the relationship between abusive supervision and salespeople’s job performance. Integrating three research streams (i.e. abusive supervision, leadership reinforcement and retail selling), this study proposes customer orientation as a novel mechanism and sheds light on how abusive supervision interplays with contingent punishment/reward to impact salespeople’s outcomes.

This paper aims to examine the validity of contingent reward and its relationship to extra effort and to further advance understanding of the leader/follower performance reward relationship.

The concept of contingent reward has largely remained unchanged since 1985. Consequently, the items of contingent reward were examined in terms of their content validity that was guided by transactional leadership theory, re‐formulated path‐goal theory of leadership, and negotiation theory. Three new contingent reward factors were identified (i.e. framing, clarifying, and rewarding). These were examined using one‐factor congeneric measurement models. Valid factors were identified using a high‐order confirmatory factor analysis to further confirm the structural validity of the three new factors of contingent reward. Finally, structural equation models were calculated to examine the relationships among contingent reward factors and extra effort.

Three distinct factors of contingent reward were identified and their relationships with extra effort was consistent with the integrative negotiation strategies where each factor formed part of a negotiation process. Contingent reward (framing) initiates the negotiation process and directly loads on contingent reward (rewarding and clarifying); contingent reward (framing) did not directly load on to extra effort. Contingent reward (rewarding) supports the negotiation process by loading directly on contingent reward (clarifying). The negotiation process is completed with contingent reward (clarifying) directly loading on extra effort. These three contingent reward factors form a simple negotiation process that highlights several important aspect of the leader/follower reward performance relationship.

This study uses a cross‐sectional design that means that its findings may not be generalisable to other populations. However, the findings of this study should encourage researchers to appreciate that common leadership behaviour, like contingent reward, may have more complex interrelationships with outcome factors such as extra effort than previously expected.

Leaders should view their use of contingent reward behaviours in terms of a process rather than simply exhibiting a single clarifying contingent reward type behaviour. In other words, leaders need to establish the boundaries (i.e. framing), acknowledge involvement (i.e. rewarding), and then elucidate mutual outcomes (i.e. clarifying). This process should enable leaders to negotiate greater flexibilities and create more momentum within their leader/follower performance reward relationships.

This paper challenges the foundation ideas and empirical pedigree of contingent reward and incorporates advances in theories such as the reformulated path‐goal theory and interpret the behaviours in a broader multi‐disciplinary context, i.e. integrative negotiation strategies.

This study focuses on the relationship between contingent reward behavior and subordinate employees’ performance in the fast-moving consumer goods (FMCG) sector.

The instruments used in this study were the leader–member exchange questionnaire and the contingent reward behavior questionnaire, which was completed by salespeople.

The results of the study (which assessed 37 respondents) indicate a meaningful relationship between contingent reward behavior and leader–member exchange. Based on these results, researchers focused on one division in the sales department that has a low leader–member exchange by providing intervention in the form of leadership coaching. The sigficant results between pre- and post-test differences, using Wilcoxon signed-rank test, indicate that the coaching intervention improved contingent reward behavior and increased leader–member exchange.

The main limitation of this study was that it involved only 44 salespeople from one company. Therefore, the results may not be generalizable.

Coaching could be an effective approach to improve leaders’ contingent reward behavior.

This study provides more evidence that coaching can help leaders improving their behavior, particularly in relation to leader–member exchange.

This study supposes to provide new insights into the role of leader behaviors in motivating employees by examining how and when spiritual leadership and contingent reward leadership facilitate employee vigor at work.

Drawing from self-determination theory (SDT), the current study proposes that spiritual leadership intrinsically motivates employees, whereas contingent reward leadership extrinsically motivates employees – both of which subsequently improve employee vigor at work. The theoretical model was tested through a sample of 191 employees collected across three time points in China.

Results revealed that spiritual leadership positively facilitates employee vigor at work through enhancing their work enjoyment, and employees' need for achievement can amplify the effects of spiritual leadership. In addition, employees' performance-reward expectancy transmits the effects of contingent reward leadership on employee vigor at work, and leaders' performance expectations play a key role in strengthening the positive influences of contingent reward leadership.

Based on SDT, this study provides a comprehensive explanation of how and when two patterns of leader behaviors affect employee vigor at work. Therefore, the authors provide significant insights for leadership and work design in human resource management.

The purpose of this paper is to examine employee perceptions of fairness and work morale as mediators of the relationship between leader reward behavior and employee behavior.

A matrix of meta‐analytic estimates containing the focal variables (leader reward behavior, fairness, morale, and employee behavior) was constructed following a literature review of published studies. This matrix was then analyzed using structural equation modeling to test a series of nested models.

Leader reward behavior is positively related to higher task performance and organizational citizenship behavior, and fewer intentions to turnover. These relationships are mediated by employees’ perceptions of fairness and work morale.

The paper extends the leadership literature by identifying two mechanisms (viz., fairness and morale) through which leader reward behavior relates to employee behavior. Possible limitations are the drawbacks associated with meta‐analysis (e.g. inability to make causal inferences).

Rewarding subordinate performance alone is not sufficient to increase task performance and organizational citizenship behavior and decrease turnover intentions. Instead, managers must ensure that their contingent reward behaviors are seen as fair by employees in order to have favorable effects.

To date, research on possible mediators of the effects of leader reward behavior has been scarce.

This study seeks to examine the manifestation and effects of transformational, contingent reward, and active management‐by‐exception leadership across ranks in the Canadian military. It also aims to investigate whether or not the relationships between perceived leadership behaviors and effective leadership outcomes are moderated by hierarchical level and followers' expectations.

A total of 704 military officers and enlisted members rated their leaders' behaviors and the behaviors they expect of their leaders.

Frequency of transformational leadership behaviors increased with rank, but frequencies of perceived and expected contingent reward and active management‐by‐exception leadership behaviors did not. Transformational and contingent reward leadership effects were not moderated by rank or by followers' expectations. The effects of perceived active management‐by‐exception leadership were moderated by followers' expectations.

When followers do not expect active management‐by‐exception from their supervisors, based on their own implicit beliefs about the types of behaviors their leaders should be exhibiting, but they are subjected to it, their job satisfaction and their attitudes toward their supervisors may be negatively affected.

Transformational leadership is prevalent, expected, and effective at all hierarchical levels. Because of their positive impact on followers' job satisfaction and their attitudes toward their supervisors, the Canadian military should continue to encourage transformational leadership and contingent reward leadership behaviors at all hierarchical levels.

The study highlights the potential importance of congruence between the expectations followers have of their leaders and followers' perceptions of their leaders' actual behaviors.

The correlation between transformational and contingent reward leadership behaviors and desired organizational outcomes is well established. The degree to which these behaviors can be taught and deployed for organizational benefit is considerably less well documented. Explored even less is the extent to which transformational leadership training impacts desired organizational outcomes. The purpose of this paper is to examine the extent to which the positive correlational relationship among transformational leadership, organizational outcomes, and productivity, extensively reported in the leadership literature, can be affirmed.

A large manufacturing organization, which had failed to achieve expected productivity improvements following major capital expenditures, undertook a comprehensive program to increase first‐line supervisors’ contingent reward and transformational leadership behaviors.

Consistent with prior studies, a significant positive relationship between the leadership behaviors of interest, affective measures, and an objective productivity metric were observed prior to the beginning of the training program. Following a year‐long training program, contingent reward and transformational leadership behaviors increased significantly, as did objectively measured productivity and job satisfaction.

Results and conclusions may be limited by the fact that the study is from a single industry. Additional studies from a variety of industries with large numbers of participants will be helpful in more fully understanding the ways in which contingent reward and transformational leadership behaviors can best be developed and deployed in organizational settings.

The elements of the training program are discussed, along with implications and advice for the use of leadership training to increase productivity.

An objective dependent variable and a large sample, pre‐ and post‐test design provide strong support for the impact of a transformational leadership development intervention on productivity.

The positive association between transformational leadership and organizational and affective outcomes is well established in the literature. The relationship of contingent reward, a component of transactional leadership, to those outcomes and its additive and interactive relationship to transformational leadership is less well understood. In a study of 660 manufacturing workers working in 25 shop areas, transformational leadership and contingent reward had positive individual and additive impacts on supervisory and general satisfaction at both the individual and group level of analysis and on productivity at the group level. At the individual level of analysis, both satisfaction with supervision and overall satisfaction were enhanced by the interaction of contingent reward and transformational leadership operating together at certain levels. The operationalization of transformational leadership has contributed to the understanding of the inspirational and relationship aspects of leadership and contingent reward explains some, but not all, of the additional elements of successful leadership.

The purpose of this paper is to examine the extent to which each dimension of authentic leadership (AL) is related with employee organizational commitment (OC) and assessment of leadership effectiveness for employees in Nigeria and to investigate the moderating effects of contingent reward leadership behaviors on these relationships. By testing the dimensions of AL with employee outcomes, this study provides further validity and empirical evidence to the theoretical structure of AL theory across cultures.

This empirical study used cross-sectional survey data collected from a sample of 212 Nigerian employees from 16 organizations across various sectors.

The results of hierarchical regression analysis of this study showed a positive relationship between AL behaviors and the outcome variables of OC and perceived leader effectiveness (LE) among Nigerian employees. The moderation result shows that the leader’s contingent reward behaviors reduce the effects of the internal moral perspective dimension of AL. As authentic leaders interact with followers and followers experience high levels of moral and ethical behaviors, contingent rewards become less important to followers.

Leadership effectiveness and OC are desirable organizational outcomes across cultures. From a practical standpoint, the results indicate several authentic dimensions are related to OC and leadership effectiveness among Nigerian employees. This extends the applicability of AL into the African countries. Particularly, it provides additional insight into a contemporary leadership model that can positively impact the leadership development in Nigeria. While the interactive effects of contingent reward were limited, they do suggest that some combinations of behaviors should be considered to effectively meet situational needs.

This is the first study that examines the relationship of the components that constitute AL with OC and perceived LE in the context of Nigeria, a major African nation.

Transformational leader behaviors are defined as those behaviors that make followers more aware of the importance and values of task outcomes, activate their higher-order needs and induce them to transcend self-interests for the sake of the organization (Bass, 1985; Yukl, 1989a, b). These behaviors primarily include six types: articulating a vision, intellectual stimulation, demonstrating high performance expectations, providing an appropriate model, fostering collaboration and providing individualized support. Transactional leader behaviors, on the other hand, are founded on an exchange process in which the leader provides rewards/ punishments in return for the subordinate's effort and performance (Burns, 1978). They often include four types: contingent/non-contingent reward and contingent /non-contingent punishment. We examined the effects of these leader behaviors on subordinates' job satisfaction, organizational commitment and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) in Chinese organizations. Data from 410 subordinate-supervisor dyads (287 in Taiwan and 123 in the PRC) suggest that while transformational leader behaviors in both samples have a more profound impact than transactional behaviors on employee job satisfaction and organizational commitment, the effects of each specific transformational and transactional behavior are different in the PRC and Taiwan. In particular, among the six types of transformational behaviors, ‘providing an appropriate model” and “demonstrating high expectation of performance” significantly influenced PRC employees' job attitudes and OCB, whereas “providing individualized support” and “fostering collaboration” had significant influence on Taiwan employees' job attitudes and OCB. Furthermore, among the four types of transactional behaviors, contingent reward and punishment had significant positive impact on PRC employees' job satisfaction and organizational commitment, whereas the job attitudes of the Taiwan employees were not significantly affected by contingent punishment. Instead, it was found that non-contingent reward had significant positive impact while non-contingent punishment had significant negative effect on their job attitudes. In addition, both contingent and non-contingent punishment had significant negative effects on Taiwan employees' OCB, whereas only non-contingent punishment had such negative effects in the PRC. The implications of these findings are discussed in terms of the contingent nature of leadership effectiveness.