Search results

The purpose of this paper is to provide ethnographic data on the lives of children working in cocoa‐producing communities in Ghana and to illustrate the importance of contextualisation in understanding the phenomenon of child labour.

The paper is based on anthropological fieldwork carried out in Ghana using participant observation and child‐focused participatory research methods. It also includes an analysis of media sources and policy documents.

It shows that the children involved in this study worked freely and willingly on family cocoa farms. It also shows that research and interventions must be context‐based and child‐centred as forms of child labour in cocoa are not uniform across West Africa.

Unfortunately, the scope of the paper does not allow for a discussion of recent interventions and progress relating to child labour in the West African cocoa industry.

This paper challenges many of the assumptions made about child labour in cocoa and offers new insights into the lives of children in these communities.

The purpose of this paper is to examine the self-declared sustainability initiatives of the world’s four largest chocolate manufacturers (Ferrero, Mars, Mondelez and Nestlé) and the measures they take to tackle social problems within the context of establishing sustainable sourcing of cocoa in Ghana and the Ivory Coast. Global cocoa supply chains are under continuous media and public scrutiny. Recent incidents of malpractice in supply chain management have left global chocolatiers vulnerable in terms of how they deal with social issues across their global supply chain networks. Critics have argued that there is a lack of consistency and transparency between what companies say and do in upholding sustainable practices across their supply chains.

The authors draw from the sustainable supply chain literature to develop our theoretical parameters and undertake a case-based analysis of the existing sustainability practices of these chocolatiers. Using the insights from this analysis, the authors propose a conceptual framework for a rigorous comparative assessment of self-declared sustainable sourcing initiatives of global agricultural supply chains. The methodology is qualitative and the research method is a secondary-data case study.

Four main parameters were identified and used to compare self-declared initiatives, namely: social sustainability certification from respectable bodies; code of conduct for suppliers; partnerships with the primary supply chain stakeholders; and supplier collaboration programme and improvement initiatives. The case companies chosen have implemented several initiatives, but the most prominent seem to indicate the reliance on third-party certification. Not all companies adopted a supplier code of conduct. The partnerships and collaboration programmes with different associations are presented as efficient for companies as well as farmers. Improvements in the conditions of farmers are advocated as a key result.

This paper is based on self-declared secondary data. Subsequently, it is possible that the case companies did not document some practices; or that companies do not do what they claim.

This paper provides a comprehensive framework for agricultural businesses to compare their sustainability efforts and improve the performance of their supply chains, particularly those who belong to the cocoa supply chains. The proposed framework allows an assessment of initiatives at policy, strategic, tactical and operational levels to improve social sustainability of supply chains.

This paper may help companies to think more clearly about greater transparency and provide the impetus for dealing more effectively with serious social issues in agricultural supply chains such as: child labour, child trafficking, modern slavery, etc. It may also instruct consumers to better understand what companies do as part of their sustainability agenda, alongside the communication of other features of their products, such as quality.

The framework adds value by providing a novel way to systematically compile and analyse data around self-declared sustainable initiatives. Actors within agricultural supply chains can use the framework to assess and drive their sustainability efforts and practices, leading to ways to improve the social performance of their global supply chains.

Gender equality and women’s empowerment are considered core development objectives (SDG 5) and instrumental in achieving other SDGs such as economic growth and food security and improved health and education. Cocoa is seen as a ‘man’s crop’ and there is entrenched gender bias in its value chain. However, women play a crucial role in the tending and post-harvesting of cocoa which are key to the price paid. This chapter investigates, via a 20-year in-depth case study, the partnership between Fair Trade Social Enterprise Divine Chocolate Ltd and Kuapa Kokoo (KK) cocoa farmer’s cooperative in Ghana. The case takes an in-depth look at women’s role in the cocoa value chain and how their strategic interests, practical needs and power can be addressed.

The Divine–Kuapa Kooko partnership, which implemented a clear resourced gender equality strategy, has made a positive contribution to reducing inequality, empowering women cocoa farmers and improving their rights. Setting quotas for women’s representation at all levels of KK’s structure has improved the strategic interests of women cocoa farmers and transformed the political structures of the cooperative. Also setting gender equality as part of the KK’s constitution enhances the empowerment and power of women cocoa farmers. Providing equal access to training and resources also enhances the practical capabilities of women.

The chapter proposes a framework of how to achieve improvements in gender quality and women’s empowerment. This case will assist other organisations who have targeted Sustainable Development Goal 5 of gender equality and women’s empowerment as part of their strategy.

The study examines the marketing of cocoa in Nigeria as a pilot study to formulating new strategies for the marketing of agricultural commodities. Three interrelated and interdependent approaches have been developed namely, institutional, functional and market structure strategies. These reveal how exchange, physical and facilitating functions can be effectively utilised to expedite the distribution of cocoa through the marketing system. However, methods in use by the cocoa farmers are not efficient due to problems of shortages and the policies of the Marketing Boards and the commodity boards. Improved methods of cocoa cultivation and the removal of impediments on granting credit facilities are recommended.

Cocoa is regarded as a brown-golden crop, but its value chain activities are dominated by the elderly. Hence, focussing attention on the young generation of farmers is the surest way to reverse this trend and secure the future of the cocoa industry. This paper, therefore explores factors influencing youth participation in cocoa value chain activities in Ghana.

Primary data were collected using a multistage sampling technique. The authors used a semi-structured questionnaire in collecting data via interviews. Through the theory of utility maximization, a multivariate probit (MVP) model was estimated to identify factors influencing youth participation in cocoa value chain activities in Ghana.

The author found that some of the value chain activities are complementary, while others are substitutes. Participation in cocoa value chain activities is influenced by access to land, participation in training programmes in cocoa production, membership of Next Generation Cocoa Youth Programme (MASO), access to agricultural credit and other demographic characteristics.

Relevant information and youth-targeted projects enhance their participation in value chain activities.

This paper is one of the few studies that empirically analyses drivers of youth participation in cocoa value chain activities in Africa.

Poor working conditions among migrant labourers on cocoa farms may be commonplace. This could affect labour productivity and cocoa industry performance. The paper investigates migrants' satisfaction with working conditions on cocoa farms in Ghana and the key drivers of satisfaction.

The study employed a five-point Likert scale to evaluate migrants' satisfaction with remuneration, working hours, welfare, health and safety, contract and freedom. Using primary data from 400 migrants and non-migrants in four cocoa districts, multivariate probit regression was employed to evaluate the determinants of satisfaction with working conditions.

Migrant labourers are generally satisfied with their working hours, nature of contract and freedom they enjoy. However, they are unsatisfied with their remuneration, welfare and health/safety conditions on cocoa farms. All things being equal, secondary occupation, nature of contract, number of farmers served by labourer, annual earnings, farm ownership, education and expectations before migration influence migrants' satisfaction with working conditions.

To improve satisfaction with working conditions and productivity, migrants on cocoa farms should be given protective working gear, long-term or renewable contracts and they should be encouraged to engage in secondary occupations.

Unlike previous studies that focussed on working conditions in the formal sector, this study explores migrants' satisfaction with working conditions in the informal agricultural sector. Also, the study examines labourers' satisfaction with six subcomponents of working conditions compared to previous studies that employed a univariate analytical approach to examine working conditions.

The purpose of this paper is to examine the factors influencing the choice and the amount of cocoa beans sold to public and private licensed buying companies in the Western North of Ghana.

The study was conducted in the Western North of Ghana. Cragg’s Double Hurdle model was used to examine the factors influencing the choice of licensed buying company (LBC) whereas Kendall’s coefficient of concordance was employed in analysis of the marketing challenges.

The results showed that non-price incentives determine the choice and the amount cocoa beans sold to an LBC. Specifically, education, years of experience in cocoa farming and timely payment of sold cocoa beans positively influence the choice of public LBC. However, off farm job participation, provision of credit facilities and extension services affect the choice of private LBC as marketing outlet. Perceived low price of cocoa beans, inadequate credit support, and adjustment of scales used in weighing of cocoa beans were identified as the most important challenges confronting farmers.

The research provides important information on non-price incentives influencing cocoa marketing outlet decision as well as the marketing challenges faced by farmers which can contribute to improving internal marketing efficiency of the cocoa industry in Ghana. Besides, this study also extends the frontiers in terms of methodological approach by adopting Cragg’s Double Hurdle Model in addressing the research question.

The research provides important information on non-price incentives influencing cocoa marketing outlet decision as well as the marketing challenges faced by farmers which can contribute to improving internal marketing efficiency of the cocoa industry in Ghana. Besides, this study also extends the frontiers in terms of methodological approach by adopting Cragg’s Double Hurdle Model in addressing the research question.

This chapter contrasts the representation of Third World farmers in Fair Trade marketing campaigns with data drawn from long-term fieldwork involving cocoa producers in Ghana and evidence provided by older anthropological monographs on these communities. In doing so, it practically illustrates the disparity between global assumptions and local perspectives on production and consumption. The key contention underlying this chapter is that the representation of producers as needy, helpless, and disgruntled with multinational corporations is deeply problematic. Such a representation reveals a significant and somewhat concerning discrepancy between the lives of farmers and the narratives displayed in Western campaigns for trade justice. By using fieldwork data and earlier anthropological literature showing the determination, ingenuity, and far-sighted strategies of cocoa farmers in Ghana, this chapter demonstrates that producers in the Third World are not the passive and helpless individuals they are sometimes portrayed as.

The purpose of this paper is to look at the ever-popular, “value-chain approach” for linking smallholder farmers to high value export markets. Conventional wisdom says that value chains undertaken for development purposes redistribute risk and provide benefits and services to participants that are otherwise difficult or impossible to obtain. The authors take a farmer-centric approach and ask farmers participating in these higher value chains if they perceive greater, or different risks and compare results to their conventional counterparts. The authors also ask what benefits they associate with participation and if they believe they believe those benefits are exclusive to value chain participation.

The authors collect data from growers in three different cocoa value chains in Ashanti, Ghana. These chains include one focussed on certified production practices (Rainforest Alliance), one that focussed on high-value product characteristics (Fine Flavor) and a conventional chain, which serves as counterfactual.

The paper finds differences in perceptions of participation risks and benefits – particularly among price risks – that appear to filter based on value chain membership. However, for many risks, value chain participation seems to do little to redistribute potential production shocks. With some exceptions, growers report that many of the benefits they enjoy as a result of participation could feasibly be accessed by other sources.

The limitations of this paper are related to sample size. This was managed from a statistical perspective.

The authors explore how these results might impact the sustainability of the value chain approach and encourage donors and development agencies to be thoughtful and critical about measuring how farmers perceive new market opportunities.

The authors believe that this is the first paper prepared to critically investigate the perceived benefits of value chains.