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Cocoa is regarded as a brown-golden crop, but its value chain activities are dominated by the elderly. Hence, focussing attention on the young generation of farmers is the surest way to reverse this trend and secure the future of the cocoa industry. This paper, therefore explores factors influencing youth participation in cocoa value chain activities in Ghana.

Primary data were collected using a multistage sampling technique. The authors used a semi-structured questionnaire in collecting data via interviews. Through the theory of utility maximization, a multivariate probit (MVP) model was estimated to identify factors influencing youth participation in cocoa value chain activities in Ghana.

The author found that some of the value chain activities are complementary, while others are substitutes. Participation in cocoa value chain activities is influenced by access to land, participation in training programmes in cocoa production, membership of Next Generation Cocoa Youth Programme (MASO), access to agricultural credit and other demographic characteristics.

Relevant information and youth-targeted projects enhance their participation in value chain activities.

This paper is one of the few studies that empirically analyses drivers of youth participation in cocoa value chain activities in Africa.

The purpose of this paper is to assess how profitable and technically efficient is cocoa enterprise in Ondo State of Nigeria especially amidst the ongoing diversification program of the current administration in Nigeria.

The study made use of primary data collected with the aid of structured questionnaires. The multistage random sampling technique was used to select the sample for the study. Data collected during the survey were analyzed by both descriptive and inferential techniques. A total of 140 respondents who were majorly cocoa farmers were selected for this study with data on their socioeconomic characteristics and input utilization taken and subsequently analyzed.

This study found that the cocoa enterprise in the study area was efficient and profitable with rooms for improvement, especially in the areas of labor and input used as identified by the outcome of the study. The average yield, total revenue, gross margin and efficiency ratio were 1.2 ton/ha, ₦1,344,000.00/ha, ₦1,071,717.00/ha and 0.36, respectively. The highest, average and least technical efficiencies among farmers in the study area were 98.86, 88.81 and 75.12 percent, respectively. It was also discovered that none of the farmers investigated operated at 100 percent, confirming that there are still rooms for improvement in the production processes in the study area by adopting modern methods of production and replacement of the old breeds with resistant and high yielding breeds.

The major limitation of this study was that the study sample is quite smaller and could as well not be used to make a strong policy case for the topic under consideration. However, as it is found among the majority of cocoa farmers in Nigeria, they mostly operate under the same conditions of production which suggests that the outcome of this research is not meaningless, considering the similarities in the production environment and other factors of production among cocoa farmers in Nigeria. It is therefore strongly recommended that future studies take into consideration this limitation and address it appropriately by widening the scope and sample for the study as this will go a long way in giving true representation as regarding the topic under consideration.

The social implication of this study has to do with the employment opportunities that will be created for the teaming youths if the cocoa enterprise is made to attract them by creating enabling environment as recommended by the study. When quantity of production is improved, it will create additional income for the farmers and also provide foreign earnings to government.

This study is strictly original, considering its content and the contribution it is making to the body of knowledge. The study will be contributing to the knowledge by pointing out the potentials inherent in cocoa production as especially coming at a time when the price of crude oil that provides over 80 percent of Nigerian foreign earnings is down and the cocoa price is not only high but also stable at the international market.

The purpose of this paper is to examine the factors influencing the choice and the amount of cocoa beans sold to public and private licensed buying companies in the Western North of Ghana.

The study was conducted in the Western North of Ghana. Cragg’s Double Hurdle model was used to examine the factors influencing the choice of licensed buying company (LBC) whereas Kendall’s coefficient of concordance was employed in analysis of the marketing challenges.

The results showed that non-price incentives determine the choice and the amount cocoa beans sold to an LBC. Specifically, education, years of experience in cocoa farming and timely payment of sold cocoa beans positively influence the choice of public LBC. However, off farm job participation, provision of credit facilities and extension services affect the choice of private LBC as marketing outlet. Perceived low price of cocoa beans, inadequate credit support, and adjustment of scales used in weighing of cocoa beans were identified as the most important challenges confronting farmers.

The research provides important information on non-price incentives influencing cocoa marketing outlet decision as well as the marketing challenges faced by farmers which can contribute to improving internal marketing efficiency of the cocoa industry in Ghana. Besides, this study also extends the frontiers in terms of methodological approach by adopting Cragg’s Double Hurdle Model in addressing the research question.

The research provides important information on non-price incentives influencing cocoa marketing outlet decision as well as the marketing challenges faced by farmers which can contribute to improving internal marketing efficiency of the cocoa industry in Ghana. Besides, this study also extends the frontiers in terms of methodological approach by adopting Cragg’s Double Hurdle Model in addressing the research question.

The authors investigate cocoa farmers' willingness and motivation to participate in agritourism entrepreneurship in Ghana.

Primary data were obtained from 583 cocoa farmers. Contingent valuation method, ordered probit and truncated regressions were employed.

Cocoa farmers' willingness to participate in agritourism was high. The minimum fee farmers were willing to charge per tourist per day ranged from US$0.870 to US$6.957. Agritourism products farmers were willing to offer to tourists are interaction with rural folks, indigenous cuisine, quality locally stored drinking water, indigenous primary healthcare and on-site restrooms. Cocoa farmers' motivations to participate in agritourism are income generation, alternative livelihood strategy and education. Education, being a native, farm size, motorable roads to farm, and distance to farm influence minimum fee farmers were willing to accept to participate in agritourism.

Agritourism could be considered in rural and tourism development policies of developing countries.

The authors investigate cocoa farmers' participation in agritourism, motivations and determinants of willingness to participate.

The purpose of this paper is to examine the self-declared sustainability initiatives of the world’s four largest chocolate manufacturers (Ferrero, Mars, Mondelez and Nestlé) and the measures they take to tackle social problems within the context of establishing sustainable sourcing of cocoa in Ghana and the Ivory Coast. Global cocoa supply chains are under continuous media and public scrutiny. Recent incidents of malpractice in supply chain management have left global chocolatiers vulnerable in terms of how they deal with social issues across their global supply chain networks. Critics have argued that there is a lack of consistency and transparency between what companies say and do in upholding sustainable practices across their supply chains.

The authors draw from the sustainable supply chain literature to develop our theoretical parameters and undertake a case-based analysis of the existing sustainability practices of these chocolatiers. Using the insights from this analysis, the authors propose a conceptual framework for a rigorous comparative assessment of self-declared sustainable sourcing initiatives of global agricultural supply chains. The methodology is qualitative and the research method is a secondary-data case study.

Four main parameters were identified and used to compare self-declared initiatives, namely: social sustainability certification from respectable bodies; code of conduct for suppliers; partnerships with the primary supply chain stakeholders; and supplier collaboration programme and improvement initiatives. The case companies chosen have implemented several initiatives, but the most prominent seem to indicate the reliance on third-party certification. Not all companies adopted a supplier code of conduct. The partnerships and collaboration programmes with different associations are presented as efficient for companies as well as farmers. Improvements in the conditions of farmers are advocated as a key result.

This paper is based on self-declared secondary data. Subsequently, it is possible that the case companies did not document some practices; or that companies do not do what they claim.

This paper provides a comprehensive framework for agricultural businesses to compare their sustainability efforts and improve the performance of their supply chains, particularly those who belong to the cocoa supply chains. The proposed framework allows an assessment of initiatives at policy, strategic, tactical and operational levels to improve social sustainability of supply chains.

This paper may help companies to think more clearly about greater transparency and provide the impetus for dealing more effectively with serious social issues in agricultural supply chains such as: child labour, child trafficking, modern slavery, etc. It may also instruct consumers to better understand what companies do as part of their sustainability agenda, alongside the communication of other features of their products, such as quality.

The framework adds value by providing a novel way to systematically compile and analyse data around self-declared sustainable initiatives. Actors within agricultural supply chains can use the framework to assess and drive their sustainability efforts and practices, leading to ways to improve the social performance of their global supply chains.

This chapter describes the journey of four social entrepreneurs in the Malaysian landscape. The objectives of the case study are to provide a description of the social entrepreneurship development in Malaysia and to illustrate how social entrepreneurs start their ventures, and mobilise change within this landscape. Primary data was collected through a survey and indepth interviews. Four social entrepreneurs participated in this study. The findings show that the Malaysian social entrepreneurship landscape is thriving and supportive, giving many opportunities for individuals to establish social enterprises. The indepth interviews revealed that the social entrepreneurs were motivated to start their social enterprises after being exposed to various socio-economic problems of diverse communities. They leveraged on their strength, both technical and business to create social enterprises. Digitalisation is a major enabler for the social enterprises where ICT tools are used to create solutions to optimise socio-economic impact. Training, coaching and mentoring are also widely used to empower the target beneficiaries. All the social entrepreneurs are deeply aware of the sustainable developmental goals (SDGs) and have strategically incorporated the relevant SDGs into their business model to guide impact measurement. This case study contributes to the field by providing insights on the what drives the ‘selfless side’ of an individual to start a social enterprise, and how do social enterprises leverage on available resources to grow and sustain their ventures. It also provides insights on how to pilot and scale social enterprises.

The authors investigated cocoa farmers' access to subsidized fertilizer in Ghana and implications on productivity.

Primary data were sourced from 435 cocoa farmers. Cragg hurdle and two-step Tobit model with continuous endogenous regressors/covariates were applied for the drivers of cocoa farmers' participation in fertilizer subsidy programme and productivity. Propensity score matching (PSM), inverse-probability weights (IPW) and augmented inverse-probability weights (AIPW) were applied for productivity impact assessment of fertilizer subsidy.

All the farmers were aware of fertilizer subsidy for cocoa production in Ghana. Farmers became aware of fertilizer subsidy through extension officers, media and other farmers. Half of cocoa farmers benefitted from fertilizer subsidy. Averagely, cocoa farmers purchased 292 kg of subsidized fertilizer. Many socio-economic, farm-level characteristics and institutional factors determine cocoa farmers' participation in fertilizer subsidy programme, quantity of subsidized fertilizer obtained and productivity. Beneficiaries of fertilizer subsidy recorded higher cocoa productivity than non-beneficiaries. Hence, fertilizer subsidy for cocoa production in Ghana leads to a gain in productivity.

There should be more investments in fertilizer subsidy so that all cocoa farmers benefit and obtain the required quantities.

The authors provide new evidence on cocoa productivity gain or loss emanating from fertilizer subsidy by combining different impact assessment techniques for deeper analysis: PSM, IPW and AIPW.

Agriculture and related businesses in Ghana for the past decades have been the preserve for the smallholder, aged and illiterate farmers. Meanwhile, hundreds of students graduate in Agricultural Sciences from the universities over the years. This study seeks to investigate potential determinants of the entrepreneurial spirit of agricultural students to do self-employed businesses in the agricultural sector. A survey of 165 undergraduate students of agriculture in the University of Cape Coast, Ghana was undertaken to examine factors that influence their decision to enter into agribusiness as a self-employment venture after graduation. The results show that the majority of the students were males (87%) and approximately, 67% were willing to enter into agribusiness after school. The factors that students perceived to be hindrance to entering into agribusiness was the market competition of agro-products with imported products, unstable prices of agro-products, absence of insurance policy for agribusiness and unfavourable land tenure arrangement in Ghana. Correlation analysis showed negative and significant relationship between students’ willingness to enter agribusiness as a self-employment venture and the following personal characteristics: (1) level of education of mother, (2) level of education of guardian other than parents, (3) students who live in farming communities and (4) students who undertake farming activities at home. There were also positive and significant relationships between students’ willingness to enter agribusiness and the following: (1) availability of market for agro-products, (2) accessibility of market for agro-products and (3) accessibility of transportation facilities for agribusiness. Regression analysis showed that (1) level of education of mother, (2) students living in farming communities, (3) accessibility of transportation facilities for agribusiness and (4) accessibility of market for agro-product were the factors that best predict undergraduate agricultural students’ willingness to enter into agribusiness as a self-employment venture after graduation. To motivate students to take agribusiness as self-employment after graduation, the study suggests the development of comprehensive and sustainable long-term policy to inspire and attract the youth into agribusiness; creation of conducive environment to minimise risk and constraints associated with agribusiness in Ghana.

This paper aims to assess how cocoa supply chain companies disclose sustainable development goals (SDGs) information in their sustainability reports. This assessment highlights strategic aspects of sustainable supply chain management and reveals leveraging sustainability points in the cocoa industry.

The two-step qualitative approach relies on text-mining company reports and subsequent content analysis that identifies the topics disclosed and relates them to SDG targets.

This study distinguishes 18 SDG targets connected to cocoa traders and 30 SDG targets to chocolate manufacturers. The following topics represent the main nexuses of connections: decent labour promotion and gender equity (social), empowering local communities and supply chain monitoring (economic) and agroforestry and climate action (environmental).

By highlighting the interconnections between the SDGs targeted by companies in the cocoa supply chain, this paper sheds light on the strategic SDGs for this industry and their relationships, which can help to improve sustainability disclosure and transparency. One interesting input for companies is the improvement of climate crisis prevention, focusing on non-renewable sources minimisation, carbon footprint and clear indicators of ecologic materiality.

This study contributes to policymakers to enhance governance and accountability of global supply chains that are submitted to different regulation regimes.

To the best of the authors’ knowledge, no previous study has framed the cocoa industry from a broader SDG perspective. The interconnections identified reveal the key goals of the cocoa supply chain and point to strategic sustainability choices for companies in an important global industry.

This chapter uses the Ghana Living Standards Survey (GLSS) 7 datasets to investigate and examine the effect of rural non-farm diversification and its implications on agricultural (tree-crop) farming sector inequalities and sustainable development in Ghana. Applying a Gini-decomposition method and/or technique within a quantitative approach, the study outcome indicates the average non-farm income thus, increased income inequality among tree-crop smallholder rural livelihoods and households. Income diversification by farm households has gained the attention of governments, policy makers, and researchers because of its commonness and contribution to socio-economic development especially in developing countries. Aggregationally, non-farm self-employment reduced income inequality, and non-farm wage employment income led to an increase in income inequality. Increased rate of educational enrollment and achievement is the most important variable of non-farm income inequality. Government effort at expanding tree-crop acreages and improve yields have to degree achieved its intended policy implementation, increased rate of educational achievement could undermine the socio-economic policy cohesion and sustainable development of rural livelihood, communities, and national economy. Tree crop policies should take account of the spatial distribution of tree-crop commodity production and in particular, the implication and effect of rural non-farm diversification on agricultural sector inequalities.