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What I will call the generic theory basically affirms that there often exists a disparity between the intentions of the actors and the outcome of their actions that gives rise to side-effects that are neither expected nor predictable.⁴ Unintended consequences are “incongruent” consequences, because what is in place in this case is a disparity between an action's original purpose and its results (Ermolaeva & Ross, 2011). This occurs because whenever we carry out our intentions in a complex world, there will be countless side-effects that could only partly be foreseen; most of the outcome depends on a series of combined reactions of a largely random nature. In other words, the interplay of forces and circumstances are so numerous and complex that it is impossible to consider all possible outcomes in advance. We can therefore say that any action has immediate effects – to some extent intentional and predictable – along with remote side-effects that are not necessarily intended or predictable. By acting we (intentionally) bring about certain things, while (unintentionally) provoking other things.

Purpose – This chapter explores the problem of school shootings as a source of anxiety and fear in schools. Such fear has generated calls for security in schools and has been a catalyst for the development and deployment of antiviolence policies in schools.

Methodology/approach – The chapter begins by examining the development of the Columbine Effect, which is a set of emotions surrounding youth social problems, particularly violence in schools. This Columbine Effect is then explored in relation to its role in the development of policies to mitigate the problem of school violence. These purposes are linked using a multilevel typology of school violence and their sources, created by Henry (2009).

Findings – The chapter explores the levels of violence addressed by six antiviolence policies: crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED), zero tolerance, anti-bullying programming, emergency management planning, peer mediation, and school climate programming. The analysis indicates the level(s) of violence each type of policy is designed to address and identifies research evidence regarding the efficacy of each policy. The analysis also focuses on the unintended consequences of school antiviolence policies, especially those which reduce violence on one or more levels, while exacerbating the problem on other levels.

Research limitations/implications – The analytical approach was selective, rather than exhaustive. Nonetheless, the analysis has suggested a number of ironies concerning the unintended consequences of antiviolence programming in schools. This suggests the need for broader analysis in this area.

Practical implications – The analysis identifies a number of detrimental effects that have resulted from school violence policy initiatives ranging from the socialization of youth toward a society of control and authority. In addition, the chapter helps to clarify the (often negative) effects of hype about violence in schools.

Originality/value of chapter – Although not often connected, this chapter explores the intersection between the discourse of school violence (typically, a social problems framing concern) and the development of school antiviolence policies (typically, an applied social scientific concern).

The nature of technologies that are recognised as Artificial Intelligence (AI) has continually changed over time to be something more advanced than other technologies. Despite the fluidity of understanding of AI, the most common theme that has stuck with AI is ‘human-like decision making’. Advancements in processing power, coupled with big data technologies, gave rise to highly accurate prediction algorithms. Analytical techniques which use multi-layered neural networks such as machine learning and deep learning have emerged as the drivers of these AI-based applications. Due to easy access and growing information workforce, these algorithms are extensively used in a plethora of industries ranging from healthcare, transportation, finance, legal systems, to even military. AI-tools have the potential to transform industries and societies through automation. Conversely, the undesirable or negative consequences of AI-tools have harmed their respective organisations in social, financial and legal spheres. As the use of these algorithms propagates in the industry, the AI-based decisions have the potential to affect large portions of the population, sometimes involving vulnerable groups in society. This chapter presents an overview of AI’s use in organisations by discussing the following: first, it discusses the core components of AI. Second, the chapter discusses common goals organisations can achieve with AI. Third, it examines different types of AI. Fourth, it discusses unintended consequences that may take place in organisations due to the use of AI. Fifth, it discusses vulnerabilities that may arise from AI systems. Lastly, this chapter offers some recommendations for industries to consider regarding the development and implementation of AI systems.

This chapter reviews findings from the literature on the use of cohort programs in personnel preparation programs. Twenty-four investigations examining cohorts in higher education were identified: fourteen studies examined elementary, middle, or secondary education programs; seven studies described special education programs; and three described educational leadership cohort programs. Findings support the use of cohorts across special education, general education, and educational leadership personnel preparation programs. Reported positive benefits included social-emotional support, improved collaboration, communication, academic support, and reduced attrition. However, several studies also revealed unintended negative consequences. Such unintended consequences included negative interpersonal conflicts, development of cliques, and conflicts between students and faculty. Findings are discussed for future research and practice.

This chapter examines the role of actors operating within the context of participatory democratic institutions. The literature on radical democracy suggests that reforming democratic institutions to promote secondary associations, participation, and deliberative decision-making can radically transform states. Through an analysis of alternative local government (ALG) practices in Saquisilí, Ecuador, the chapter demonstrates that a variety of actors, with diverse motivations, constitute and operate within participatory institutions. Despite the radical discursive structure of the institutions, however, actors are able to creatively use those institutional spaces for other goals. The implication for radical democratic theory is that not all outcomes that have been read as unintended consequences are unintended.

This chapter explores the evolution of the media framings of a corporate corruption scandal over time. Our analysis focuses on the evolution of media frames used by the English and French Press in the coverage of the corruption scandal involving SNC-Lavalin, a Quebec-based multinational engineering firm. We reveal how media coverage shifted from balanced and nuanced coverage of a complex phenomenon that facilitated debates on the appropriate consequences of corruption to a selective (re)construction of events to serve partisan agendas when the company’s legal plight was politicized. Our study contributes to the literature on media framings of corporate corruption by highlighting how the politicization of a corporate corruption scandal led to a dual climate of opinion across the English and French Press.

Senior managers seek to align managerial endeavors with the organization’s objectives. Traditionally, alignment has focused on monitoring and rewarding the achievement of assigned targets. However, there is evidence to suggest that organizations may also seek to align managerial “values” with those of the organization. These attempts to influence managerial mindsets through management control systems raise non-trivial questions regarding the systems involved, the reasons behind them, and the possible consequences of such attempts. These questions form the basis of this research, and this chapter reports on two case studies of Mexican organizations that claim to have a values-based philosophy. This study contributes to the management literature by presenting empirical evidence related to certain philosophical ideas on the development of human potential and senior managers’ attempts to influence their employees’ will. In detailing the implementation process of two specific value systems, this chapter fills a gap identified in the management control literature.

The global higher education (HE) sector is increasingly becoming more competitive and has experienced a significant amount of transformation. Within the last 20 years changes occurred within legal frameworks, governing funding schemes, quality assurance systems and apprenticeship programs for industry across a widening range of HE provisions that support the upskilling of the workforce. This chapter shows that, higher education institutions (HEIs) are constantly seeking alternative ways of developing and consolidating new financial streams (partnering with other HEIs, geographical growth and portfolio development) that allow a sustainable development while maintaining high quality standards. The chapter shows that governments and experts believe enterprise-wide risk management (EWRM) can help HEIs reduce risk but also shows that it is not widely implemented in the HE sector.

This chapter critically discusses the implementation of EWRM in the context of a private HEI case study example with the purpose of ensuring business continuity and sustainable growth, while maintaining and enhancing quality standards. The importance of EWRM is discussed and illustrated through the case study research approach where the author analyzes the importance of risk management starting from preparation to program evaluation. This case study review provides a comprehensive and detailed answer as to how adoption of EWRM has been applied through adopting an international standards approach and utilizing the improvement cycle of preparation, plan, do, check and act. The chapter aligns well with the scope of the book as it provides theoretical and practical insights related to EWRM which is very important in assisting HEI governors and leaders in developing resilient and competitive educational establishments.