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“It should also be noted that the objective of convergence and equal distribution, including across under-performing areas, can hinder efforts to generate growth. Contrariwise, the objective of competitiveness can exacerbate regional and social inequalities, by targeting efforts on zones of excellence where projects achieve greater returns (dynamic major cities, higher levels of general education, the most advanced projects, infrastructures with the heaviest traffic, and so on). If cohesion policy and the Lisbon Strategy come into conflict, it must be borne in mind that the former, for the moment, is founded on a rather more solid legal foundation than the latter” European Commission (2005, p. 9)Adaptation of Cohesion Policy to the Enlarged Europe and the Lisbon and Gothenburg Objectives.

Aim of the present monograph is the economic analysis of the role of MNEs regarding globalisation and digital economy and in parallel there is a reference and examination of some legal aspects concerning MNEs, cyberspace and e‐commerce as the means of expression of the digital economy. The whole effort of the author is focused on the examination of various aspects of MNEs and their impact upon globalisation and vice versa and how and if we are moving towards a global digital economy.

Besides subjectivism (in terms of value and cost) and the market process approach (as opposed to mainstream economics’ equilibrium analysis), methodological individualism is a foundational methodological principle of Austrian economics. While being (arguably) more consistently and consciously practiced within Austrian economics, methodological individualism is far from unique to this tradition and is a well-recognized principle of inquiry in the social sciences (Watkins, 1952a, 1952b). Needless to say though, methodological individualism remains controversial and discussions of its true meaning and adequateness periodically resurface in the philosophy of science literature (Hodgson, 2007; Udehn, 2002).

Purpose – The purpose of this chapter is to advance understanding of regional industry or innovation clusters and the opportunities that the cluster framework provides policymakers for delivering economic impact, clarifying economic priorities, and coordinating disparate programmatic efforts, and to articulate some basic principles for formulating cluster strategies.

Methodology/approach – As the cluster concept enters its third decade and the body of related literature reaches a new level of maturity a consensus has emerged among academics and policy thinkers on the economic benefits of clusters. In fact, clusters have emerged as major focus of economic and policy discussion just now – in what the authors dub a “cluster moment” – by dint of their demonstrated practical impact, their value in paradigm discussions, and their potential utility in policy reform. The chapter reviews the benefits of clusters and traces their ascendance – and re-emergence post-recession – among policy thinkers.

Findings – New research confirms that strong clusters tend to deliver positive benefits to workers, firms, and regions. As a paradigm, they reflect the nature of the real economy and as a matter of policymaking, clusters provide a framework for rethinking and refocusing economic policy. In pursuing cluster-based economic development strategies, policy leaders should not try to create clusters; use data to target interventions, drive design, and track performance; focus initiatives on addressing discrete gaps in performance or binding constraints on cluster growth; maximize impact by leveraging pre-existing cluster-relevant programs; align efforts vertically as well as horizontally; and let the private sector lead. All three tiers of the nation's federalist system have distinct and complementary roles to play in advancing the cluster paradigm.

Research limitations/implications (if applicable) – The paper includes no new/original data.

Practical implications (if applicable) – Given that clusters have emerged as a major focus of economics and policy, this chapter lays out a core set of general principles for pursuing cluster-based economic development strategies – and for avoiding common pitfalls – to which policymakers can adhere.

Originality/value of paper – The chapter advances cluster thinking and cluster strategies as a paradigm with the potential to accelerate regional economic growth and assist with the nation's needed restructuring and rebalancing toward a more productive post-recession economy.

This paper aims to discuss and present the regional-innovation cluster policy for R&D efficiency and the creative economy. In particular, the R&D efficiency and creative economy of Daedeok Innopolis are discussed for the science and technology policy of the R&D regional-innovation cluster. In this research, the region cluster policy change, the creative innovation system construction, the manpower system construction and the support unification for R&D and commercialization are presented as policy proposals for R&D efficiency and the creative economy.

In this research, the universities, research institutes and enterprises of Daedeok Innopolis were studied. Thirty people from the universities in the area, 30 from the research institutes and 30 from the enterprises were surveyed through the quota sampling of the non-probability sampling method for this research. These survey respondents were science and technology policy specialists for the R&D, industrialization and entrepreneurial activities of Daedeok Innopolis. The methodological material is a questionnaire. The study’s investigation factors were the government’s role, knowledge creation and the network. Also, F-test, ANOVA and chi-square independence test were utilized for the survey data analysis.

Regional-innovation cluster construction is a representative method of realizing regional development and competition enhancement. This research was found through the analysis that the government policy is very useful for innovation ecosystem development. The knowledge capability has been enhanced in connection with knowledge creation. Also, the network has been vitalized. New-dimension industry–university–institute collaboration and a human resource management system are needed for R&D efficiency and the creative economy. Daedeok Innopolis needs consistent support for industrialization and foundation.

Movement of and cooperation among humans, goods, knowledge, technologies, etc., occur in many areas (science, the economy, culture, arts, etc.) because of the compression of time and space through informatization and globalization. This has brought about changes in cross-border, regional and national relations and has stimulated competition in the aforementioned areas. To date, a state-dominated system has been operated to deal with these changes, but it has been shown to be inefficient because it cannot reflect the conditions in the region and does not allow quick reaction. The advantages of the region must be identified and utilized to boost the survival and development of the region. Regional-innovation cluster construction is a representative method of realizing regional development and competition enhancement.

The innovative feature of the study is proposed the science and technology policy (the region cluster policy change, the creative innovation system construction, the manpower system construction and the support unification for R&D and commercialization) for the R&D regional-innovation cluster through the survey data analysis. In this paper, the R&D efficiency and the creative economy of Daedeok Innopolis are discussed for the science and technology policy of the R&D regional-innovation cluster. The science and technology policy for the R&D regional-innovation cluster development is examined for the first time in this paper. This research is expected to make a significant contribution to the establishment of a development strategy for the regional-innovation cluster, and to the decision-making regarding the science and technology policy.

The high-speed rail network can lead to the transformation of the tourism industry, as well as the regional economy. In the present study, a reasonable method was developed to assess the contributions of high-speed rail network to the development of tourism and economy in a Chinese region known as the “1 + 8” city tourism circle.

The method proposed here combines not only tourism revenue but also regional economy in a MGM (1, n) gray model, and it studies the tourist and economic output of this tourism circle before and after the high-speed rail network’s construction using an advanced “with and without comparison” method.

By using this method, the accuracy of the prediction of the contribution rate of high-speed rail network is improved. We found that in the “1 + 8” city tourism circle, the high-speed rail network positively contributes to increase of the tourism arrival and tourism revenue. Furthermore, regional economy significantly grows under the impact of the high-speed rail network.

The “1 + 8” city tourism circle is studied as a closed system in this paper, and the authors focus on the economic associations between the cities in the circle by ignoring the impact from outside this circle. This treatment means, simplifies and enables the feasibility of this study, but it virtually leads to the deviation of outcomes between this study and the practical.

For theoretical values, by studying a normal Chinese inland region, this study reconfirmed the positive impact of high-speed railway empirically. In the meantime, this study developed an improved method by introducing gray theory models to “with and without comparison” method to calculate the contribution of high-speed railway to the regional tourism and economy development. Such method simultaneously incorporates the indexes of regional tourism income and regional GDP simultaneously. It is direct and convenient as it can achieve accuracy requirements using only a small amount of data, and it reconciles more with reality by considering the interaction of the outcomes of tourism and economy.

For practical values, using the proposed method, a direct and convenient calculation of the contributions of high-speed railway to many other regions can be achieved if the data of the outcomes of tourism and economy can be obtained. In such a way, the regions that really need high-speed railway to stimulate their development can be distinguished from regions whose high-speed railway is under blind construction. Thus, the government may take actions to reassess some uneconomic high-speed railway projects without discouraging the construction of high-speed railway in other regions. The authors believe that this is important not only for China but also for many other countries with high-speed railway projects.

This study develops a reasonable method of assessing the contribution of high-speed rail to regional tourism and economic development. Using this method, this study confirmed that high-speed rail indeed positively impacts the regional development.

抽象

高速铁路（HSR）网络可以带动旅游业乃至区域经济的转型。本研究构建了一个合理的方法来评估高铁网络对中国 “1+8” 城市旅游圈的旅游产业和区域经济发展的贡献。

本文提出的方法将旅游收入和区域经济的指标结合在一个MGM（1，n）灰色模型中，并采用先进的 “有无比较法” 来研究高铁网建设前后该旅游圈的旅游和经济产出。

利用该方法，可更精准地预测高速铁路网的贡献率。研究发现，在“1+8” 城市旅游圈中，高铁网络对游客到访量和旅游收入的增加起到了积极的促进作用。此外，在高铁网络的影响下，区域经济得到了显著增长。

本文将 “1+8” 城市旅游圈作为一个封闭的系统进行研究，忽略了外部因素的影响，而重点研究旅游圈内城市之间的经济联系。这种处理方法简化了本研究的过程，增加了研究的可行性，但实际上导致了本研究结果与现实存在偏差。

就理论上而言，本文通过对一个典型的中国内陆地区展开研究，从经验上重新确认了高速铁路的积极影响。同时，将灰色理论模型引入到“有无比较法” 中，提出了一种改进方法，用以计算高速铁路对区域旅游业和经济发展的贡献。该方法同时结合了区域旅游收入和GDP指标，十分直接方便，只需要少量数据就可以达到准确的要求；并且由于它考虑到了旅游业和经济的相互作用，更符合实际。

就实用价值而言，只需获得旅游业和经济成果的数据，即可利用该方法直接方便地计算高铁对众多其他地区的贡献。这样一来，就可以将真正需要高铁来刺激发展的地区与盲目建设高铁的地区区分开来。由此，政府可以对一些不经济的高速铁路项目进行重新评估，而不妨碍其他地区的高铁建设。笔者认为，这对中国乃至其他许多国家的高铁项目建设来说是很重要的。

本研究提出了一种合理的方法来评价高铁对区域旅游业和经济发展的贡献。利用这一方法，本研究证实了高铁确实对区域发展产生了积极的影响。

Resumen

La red de ferrocarril de alta velocidad (HSR) puede liderar la transformación de la industria turística, así como la economía regional. En el presente estudio, se ha desarrollado un método para evaluar las contribuciones de la red ferroviaria de alta velocidad, en el desarrollo económico en una región China conocida como el círculo de turismo urbano “1+8”.

El método que se propone combina, no solamente los ingresos por turismo, sino también la economía regional en un modelo MGM (1,n) gris, y estudia la producción turística y económica de este círculo turístico, antes y después de las construcción de la red ferroviaria de alta velocidad utilizando un método “con y sin comparación”.

Usando este método, se mejora la predicción de la tasa de contribución de la red de alta velocidad. Nosotros descubrimos que en el círculo “1+8”, la red ferroviaria de alta velocidad contribuye positivamente al aumento en la llegadas de turistas y los ingresos por turismo. Además, la economía regional, crece significativamente bajo el impacto de esta red.

En este artículo, el círculo de turismo urbano “1+8”, se estudia como un sistema cerrado, se enfoca en la asociación económica entre las ciudades, pero ignorando el impacto desde fuera. Este tratamiento significa simplificar y habilitar la viabilidad de este estudio, pero prácticamente conduce a la desviación de los resultados entre este estudio y la practica.

El valor teórico, estudiando una región normal del interior de China, reconfirma el impacto positivo del ferrocarril de alta velocidad. Mientras tanto, este estudio desarrolla un método mejorado, introduciendo los modelos de “teoría gris” en los métodos “con y sin comparación”, para el calculo de la contribución del ferrocarril de alta velocidad en el desarrollo de la economía regional y turística. Además y simultáneamente, el método incorpora los índices de ingresos del turismo regional y el PIB. Esto es directo y conveniente, ya que puede cumplir con los requisitos de precisión, usando solamente una pequeña cantidad de datos, y concilia más con la realidad considerando la interacción del resultado del turismo y economía.

Para los valores prácticos, usando el modelo propuesto, se puede lograr un cálculo directo y conveniente de las contribuciones del ferrocarril de alta velocidad a muchas otras regiones, y se pueden obtener datos del impacto del turismo y la economía. De esta manera, las regiones que realmente necesiten el ferrocarril de alta velocidad para estimular su desarrollo, se podrán diferenciar de aquellas otras que lo planteen a ciegas. Por lo tanto, los gobiernos deberían tomar acciones para reevaluar algunos proyectos ferroviarios de alta velocidad ineficientes, sin desalentar la construcción de los mismos en otras regiones. Los autores creen que esto no sólo es importante para China, sino también para muchos otros países con proyectos de ferrocarriles de alta velocidad.

Este estudio desarrolla un método razonable de evaluación de la contribución del ferrocarril de alta velocidad, en el desarrollo de la economías regionales y turísticas. Usando este método, este estudio confirma que el ferrocarril de alta velocidad añade impactos positivos en el desarrollo regional.

The purpose of this paper is to discuss the prospects of a Southeast Asian knowledge economy in light of regional integration processes and the participation of Southeast Asia in global innovation networks.

The evidence base is a combination of quantitative data on R&D investments, patent applications and publications, with qualitative data from 40 semi-structured expert interviews conducted with innovation experts, research managers and policymakers in six ASEAN Member States.

Despite economic growth and increases in R&D inputs and outputs in individual ASEAN Member States, innovation policy at regional ASEAN level remains weak. In addition, the economic integration of the ASEAN Economic Community is progressing slowly. In this environment, evidence is presented for a certain level of regional integration when it comes to the exploitation of knowledge produced within and outside of ASEAN. While a regional market for knowledge exploitation is conceivable, this is not accompanied by the regional integration of knowledge production.

The main practical implication of this argument is the need for ASEAN policymakers to appreciate the disconnection between regional knowledge production and exploitation. This paper offers conceptual tools to engage in ASEAN-level policy discussions on this issue that can help facilitate the best possible regional outcome.

Despite several studies on the ASEAN Economic Community process, there has been no contribution so far that combines a discussion of the economic integration process with a look at the regional knowledge economy and innovation systems. This perspective does not only contribute to innovation systems literature, but also entails important policy lessons.

Is it regionalization or globalization that more accurately depicts the state of the global economy? Exports and foreign direct investments (FDI) data are analyzed with the aim of answering the question and determining how intra‐ and inter‐regional integration has changed over time.

To address the research questions, this paper covers the following. First, it takes a longitudinal perspective in examining the changes taking place in exports and FDI at the regional level. Second, it draws strategic business and marketing implications of this development.

The results show a trend toward regionalization in the Quad (North America, Western Europe, Asia, and Latin America), especially with respect to exports data.

Findings, strategic implications, and directions for future research are presented.

The purpose of this paper is three-fold. The first objective is to contextualize and clarify the concepts of regional innovation systems and entrepreneurship, addressing their differences and complementarities and suggesting an analytical filter to enhance their understanding. The second aim is to question and analyse the challenges this renewed approach brings to the domain of territorial policy, namely, the role it may bring to local and regional development strategies, opening up the way for a set of public policy interventions on the fields of entrepreneurship and innovation promotion. Finally, the paper presents and analyses the example of Coimbra, a medium-sized city in Portugal, underlining both the role of academia and the Instituto Pedro Nunes-Incubator have had on these domains.

The paper is based on a case study approach, with an in-depth descriptive and exploratory analysis of the Coimbra entrepreneurial ecosystem.

The paper acknowledged the role entrepreneurial stakeholders have on the fertilization of the innovation and entrepreneurial Coimbra ecosystem. The Instituto Pedro Nunes-Incubator, with a new generation of startups, mostly born on its infrastructure as university spin-offs, gradually introduced a more business-oriented perspective on the local innovation system which, alongside the creation of a thicker networking and more profound cooperation culture, with the growing involvement of other local stakeholders such as science parks (Coimbra iParque), has had a decisive role on upgrading urban competitiveness. These new knowledge-based startups also have important spill-over effects that are beneficial to the growth of other firms in the same locality. There is evidence that they also provide an important Schumpeterian stimulus within economies by increasing competition, promoting innovation and augmenting the efficient allocation of resources within economies. Besides the more traditional transactional forms of support (tax incentives, grants, etc.), there is now the recognition that relational forms of support such as network building, developing connections between entrepreneurial actors, institutional alignment of priorities, fostering peer-based interactions have been strategic to improve both the efficiency and the effectiveness of the entrepreneurial ecosystem.

There is, thus, a need for more profound theorization and empirical research that can produce additional comprehension into this domain of the cause-effect relationships between entrepreneurship, innovation and local and regional dynamics. Some authors suggest, in particular, that the existing work on entrepreneurial ecosystems within popular business literature and academic research still has a deficit of a solid theoretical foundation, making the entrepreneurial ecosystem approach somehow both ambiguous and immature concept and, thus, reducing its generalizability and policy applicability. Research that evaluates the relationship between entrepreneurial performance and the level of government participation as part of governance systems will also be of great significance over the near future as it will help researchers and policymakers to realize better where the different stakeholders can enhance entrepreneurship and where their intervention will possibly diminish positive outcomes.

The main practical implications of this paper are associated with the need that urban and regional policymakers to formulate more business-led strategies to promote territorial innovation and entrepreneurship. The paper also offers conceptual tools that point out the need that innovation stakeholders, namely, universities, incubators and firms, have to assume more protagonism in promoting competitiveness and sustainability.

The entrepreneurial ecosystem approach constitutes both a theoretical and analytical useful tool to define competitive strategies for urban and regional economies. Urban and regional-innovation ecosystem construction is a representative method of realizing territorial development and competition enhancement, through sustainable job and wealth creation.

This paper analysis summarizes and integrates the increasing and scattered literature of both the regional innovation systems and of the entrepreneurial ecosystems and delivers new insights for the future development of this field, namely, in terms of renewal of policy formulation and implementation. The singularity of the case study is associated with the fact that Coimbra entrepreneurial ecosystem is still largely embryonic, having its roots on a paradigm strategic shift the University adopted towards a more proactive role in terms of city aand regional development.

The purpose of this paper is to quantify and analyze the relative impact of agriculture Trade liberalization and South Asian Free Trade Agreement (SAFTA) over the global economic welfare. The objectives are to analyze and quantify the potential economic cost and benefits of the prospective trade between India and Pakistan to consumers, producers and government of the two countries by analyzing the potential economic costs and benefits of Pak‐India trade in exporting various consumer goods.

The Global Trade Analysis Project (GTAP) database is the database for the GTAP model of the world economy, which is publicly available. The main data source for this model is “The GTAP 4 Data Base” which is easy to adapt to appropriate sectoral and regional aggregations that allow one to focus on specific policy questions. The regional databases in the model are derived from individual country input‐output (I/O) tables that provide information about the individual regional economies in the model. The bilateral trade data are primarily derived from the United Nations Commodity Trade database. The economic research service (ERS) of the United States Department of Agriculture supplies the missing information in the UN trade data.

The first scenario is when normal trading relations with India will be restored; it means that each country will give the most‐favored‐nations (MFN) status to the other. In the second scenario, the SAFTA will be operative, and there will be free trade between India and Pakistan, and both countries will remove all tariffs and custom duties from each other's imports. The GTAP model is used to analyze the possible impact of SAFTA on Pakistan in a multi‐country, multi‐sector applied general equilibrium framework.

The analysis based on simulations reveals that current demand for Pakistani consumer items will expand after the free trade agreement (FTA) and consumer surplus will increase. The export of consumer items may be conducted by two scenarios, i.e. when normal trading relations between Pakistan and India will be restored and when there will be a free trade between Pakistan and India in the presence of SAFTA. Results based on this research reveal that, on SAFTA grounds, there will be net export benefits in Pakistan's economy.