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THE rules for the 1935 Deutsch de la Meurthe Cup Race remained almost identical with those of 1933 and 1934. Briefly, the contest was open to all types of land “aerodynes”; the only limitation being that the total capacity of the engine (or engines) remained under 8 litres (488·20 cu. in.). In other directions, designers were left with an absolutely free hand—the usual Certificate of Airworthiness even being dispensed with. To avoid the participation of machines of doubtful characteristics, each competitor had to qualify between April 2 and May 2 by passing successfully the following tests: a flight of 500 km. (311 miles) in a closed circuit at a speed exceeding 300 k.p.h. (186·5 m.p.h.)—against 250 k.p.h. (155·5 m.p.h.) last year. In addition, take‐off and landing had to be performed in less than 500 metres (1,640 ft.) over a “screen” 1 metre (3·28 ft.) high—against 550 metres (1,801 ft.) last year. Actually, the “screen” took the form of two parallel ropes set at the required height and separated by an interval of 50 metres (164 ft.), so as to ensure correct execution of the test. The wind velocity had to be under 6 metres per second (19·7 f.p.s.) during the take‐off and landing tests.

This chapter shows that the algorithm recently proposed to decompose the Foster and Wolfson bipolarization index by income sources (see Bárcena-Martin, Deutsch, & Silber, forthcoming) may be extended to break down wage bipolarization by its determinants. The chapter gives an empirical illustration comparing the determinants of wage bipolarization and inequality in various European countries in 2011, with a special focus on Portugal. In Portugal higher levels of education are the main source of bipolarization and inequality. Gender and working in the public sector are important determinants of bipolarization while age and having a temporary job are important determinants of inequality.

Trust is a key concept in business, particularly in electronic commerce (e‐commerce). In order to understand online trust, one must first study trust research conducted in the offline world. The findings of such studies, dating from the 1950’s to the present, provide a foundation for online trust theory in e‐commerce. This paper provides an overview of the existing trust literature from the fields of philosophy, psychology, sociology, management, and marketing. Based on these bodies of work, online trust is briefly explored. The range of topics for future research in online trust in e‐commerce is presented.

Justice rules are standards that serve as criteria for formulating fairness judgments. Though justice rules play a role in the organizational justice literature, they have seldom been the subject of analysis in their own right. To address this limitation, we first consider three meta-theoretical dualities that are highlighted by justice rules – the distinction between justice versus fairness, indirect versus direct measurement, and normative versus descriptive paradigms. Second, we review existing justice rules and organize them into four types of justice: distributive (e.g., equity, equality), procedural (e.g., voice, consistent treatment), interpersonal (e.g., politeness, respectfulness), and informational (e.g., candor, timeliness). We also emphasize emergent rules that have not received sufficient research attention. Third, we consider various computation models purporting to explain how justice rules are assessed and aggregated to form fairness judgments. Fourth and last, we conclude by reviewing research that enriches our understanding of justice rules by showing how they are cognitively processed. We observe that there are a number of influences on fairness judgments, and situations exist in which individuals do not systematically consider justice rules.

A hidden issue is whether the more de‐escalatory behavior of cooperatively‐motivated compared to competitively‐motivated conflict parties is the result of less concern for one's own goals, more concern for the other's goals, or both. A scenario study and a simulation experiment among undergraduate students confirmed the hypothesis that the difference in other‐concern is the critical explanator. The stronger other‐concern of cooperatively‐motivated compared to competitively motivated parties fostered more accommodating, more problem solving, more compromising, and less forcing, resulting in more de‐escalation or less escalation.

Conceptually examines the effect of individualism/collectivism on the tenets of equity theory. It is the view of the authors that the equality principle of reward allocation in collectivistic cultures is not a separate method of distribution, but a subset of the theoretically grounded equity principle appropriately integrating the cross‐cultural individualism/collectivism value. To support this position, the authors reduce equity theory to its fundamental elements and illustrate how in dividualism/collectivism separately affects each component. The derived model and subsequent discussion should provide researchers with a theoretical frame work for future empirical studies.

THE second edition of the now classic Deutsch de la Meurthe Cup race showed considerable progress over the first competition; the principle of setting a relatively low limit for the cubic capacity of the engine and giving the designers an otherwise entirely free hand is unquestionably one of the best ways towards rapid technical strides. It must be particularly stressed that the competing machines had no certificate of airworthiness of any sort; in fact, Government control was for once completely left aside and the racers allowed to take part in the contest without having been subjected to the slightest examination of officials of the Ministère de l'Air. Thus manufacturers were relieved of the customary administrative difficulties and losses of time. The result proved perfectly satisfactory; machines were rapidly built and tried, they demonstrated remarkable flying qualities and performance, and technical advances of great practical value have been attained in a very short space of time. The experience is likely to have long‐reaching and beneficial results.

A dynamic and changing international business environment and higher needs for innovation have increased the importance of creativity in organizations. Organizations need creative employees to develop new methods and procedures that stimulate innovation. However, prior research indicates that employees are sometimes passive and avoid engaging in creative behavior. To promote individual creative behavior, this study aims to better understand the role of task conflict and conflict management. More specifically, the authors draw on Deutsch’s conflict theory of cooperation and competition to test whether an employee’s conflict management moderates the indirect relationship between task conflict and creativity through cooperation.

To test the hypotheses, the authors conducted a three-phase survey study with 428 employees from different German organizations.

The results suggest that task conflict has only a positive indirect relationship with creativity through cooperation with teammates when employees avoid a competitive conflict management style.

The authors draw on Deutsch’s conflict theory of cooperation and competition to integrate research on task conflict and conflict management, allowing them to explain why and when task conflict with teammates influences an employee’s creativity. The findings show that task conflict is particularly beneficial for cooperation and creativity if employees avoid closed-minded discussions and competitive interactions with coworkers.

This paper considers the progress that has been made during the past sixty years or so in the social psychological study of conflict. It begins with a brief description of the influence of the writings of Darwin, Marx, and Freud, of game theory, and of studies of cooperation and competition as they affected the study of conflict. The main body of the paper summarizes the research bearing upon five major questions that have been the major foci of inquiry in this area during the past twenty‐five years: (1) What conditions give rise to a constructive or destructive process of conflict resolution? (2) What circumstances, strategies, and tactics lead one party to do better than another in a conflict situation? (3) What determines the nature of the agreement between conflicting parties, if they are able to reach agreement? (4) How can third parties be used to prevent conflicts from becoming destructive? (5) How can people be educated to manage their conflicts more constructively?