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The question of the nature of the collar is pursued drawing on results generated in the field of social ontology as well as on observations from history. In this chapter, it can be tried to seek what the nature of collar is, this is a central question for social theory, not least economics and human resources. Tony Lawson (2019, p. 1, 2021) has recently developed a theory of social positioning “… which is the social phenomena are everywhere constituted by or within process through which social totalities are formed or emerge.” The central idea of the theory of social positioning is that social relations are ultimately power relationships, which structure how social phenomena are organized. This chapter further explores this idea by conceptualizing power drawing on the theory of social positioning. Collar is a social phenomenon and associated with certain kind of structure which is social classes in this chapter. This structure will be taken as a class relation in Marxist approach as it is known, this relation is about power. In this framework, the question of the nature of collar needs to be explained with social positioning theory.

To propose a structured framework for measuring white‐collar workforce.

The proposed framework, designated as the multi‐dimension measurement process or the MDMP, is based on the nature of white‐collar work as well as on the strengths of current measurement techniques such as Zigon's. The experiment on comparing the MDMP with several techniques was conducted. The analytic hierarchical process (AHP) has been adopted to determine the usefulness and applicability of the MDMP. The follow‐up discussions with the participants and the surveys to external experts have also been made.

The research results imply potential usefulness and applications for the MDMP. Relatively to others, the MDMP has performed very highly with the set of prioritized criteria (from the AHP) that is used for this comparison, e.g. reliability, strategic congruence, measurement coverage, and user acceptance. Based on this experiment, the MDMP appears to ensure the alignment between strategies and measurement, and also to gain the acceptance by both workers and supervisors.

Given the small size (16 participants) and the limited scope (participants mainly from the accounting and finance areas), it is not possible to provide a definite conclusion on the effectiveness of the MDMP. More experiments and tests will be needed to determine the level of the MDMP generalization.

A basis or a starting point to help develop a tool that can be used to measure white‐collar workforce.

This research incorporates several aspects relating to the work performed by white‐collar workforce from outputs/outcomes, skills, behavior, and organizational goals. The needs to develop the framework that measures and captures the performance of white‐collar workforce have been cited by several sources for many years. The focus on measuring the workforce level is mainly for appraisal/administrative purposes. As a result, the information may not reflect all aspects relating to the white‐collar work.

White‐collar productivity measurement can be improved, according to results from group sessions conducted with 39 executives, managers and academics which elicited a list of eleven useful areas for measurement. There are three types of ways in which the measurements can be used: self‐improvement; performance appraisal, salary and promotion; and feedback, communication and work direction. Highly interactive jobs should be measured at group level, with individual performance judged on the basis of group results. Peer group ratings can also measure white collar productivity, with existing MBO systems providing information; and time management techniques are also appropriate.

To explore the moral position of Baumol’s theory of productive, unproductive and destructive entrepreneurship; Ross’s (1907) concept of the ‘criminaloid’ and Sutherland’s (1949a, 1949b) theories of white-collar crime, as applied to ‘popular illegalities’ (Lea, 2003) and the activities of entrepreneurs who operate primarily as small/medium enterprise (SME); artisans; and tradespeople as they interact with an emerging affluent working class.

Provides a framework of key texts that explore the concepts of morality, legality and ethics when applied to the theoretically unexplored concept of criminal entrepreneurism, as a function of working class survival and capital accumulation. Research for this chapter included the analysis of government reports into the illicit activities of ‘professional’ and ‘non-professional’ bodies; personal observation of street corner shops.

Provides a critical analysis of theories that advocate rule avoidance and evasion as an acceptable process of developing successful entrepreneurs and the controversial theories of white-collar crime that focus on ‘high status’ actors operating at the corporate level. It identifies a necessary relationship and complicity between clients (victims) and practitioners as key elements in the commission of deviant acts, as victims expand their social, economic and cultural capital.

By combining philosophies of entrepreneurism, theories of white, blue and collarless crime and a reconsideration of moral business principles, this chapter introduces a new construct of deviancy as a ‘positive’ outcome that reject the need for criminal justice agencies intervention.

A recent research project on white collar quality circles in manufacturing industry was carried out because previous research at UMIST indicated that white collar circles were more difficult to set up and sustain. The study involved interviews in eleven companies which had or had had white collar circles, and questionnaire surveys of manufacturing companies and quality circle consultants. The findings indicate that white collar circles are no more difficult to initiate than blue collar circles but they can be harder to sustain. There was little evidence that companies were aware of the benefits of increasing white collar productivity or the part that circles can play in this and white collar workers are often sceptical about the relevance of circles to them. It was also found that white collar circles can face difficulties such as problem choice, over‐complex projects, organising meetings and a tendency to form multi‐disciplinary groups. Companies intending to start white collar circles need to be aware of the pitfalls but these should not deter them from setting them up.

An existing effective system of productivity measurement is desirable if productivity improvement initiatives are to take place. Yet amongst white collar workers, productivity measurement tends to be ill‐defined and often non‐existent. This article outlines a framework within which managers can measure white collar productivity.

A study carried out at UMIST of the operation of white‐collar circles in manufacturing firms is reported. Despite the problems associated with initiating and sustaining white‐collar circles, it is not suggested that they should be avoided.

The purpose of this study is to empirically assess the theorized importance of trust and resource removal following white-collar crime.

Two studies are conducted using data from the Washington Post and ABC News Poll following the savings and loan scandal and the dotcom bust. The first examines trust in corporate contexts, and the second examines direct resource withdrawal from financial institutions.

Results of a series of logistic regressions suggest that trust is impacted by high-profile white-collar crime. Models 1 and 2 find evidence that trust is a strong predictor of belief in investing in a given industry. Models 3 and 4 provide evidence that high-profile trust breaches lead to resource withdrawal, adding to the economic damages incurred directly from white-collar crime.

This study provides evidence that white-collar crime can create much larger financial consequences than immediate losses.

Despite considerable theoretical ties between white-collar crime and trust, little empirical evidence exists to support this notion. This study provides two empirical studies that address the theoretical link.

In this paper the legislative and regulatory role of the South African government with regard to the combating of white‐collar crime will be delineated. Five major relevant constitutional issues, namely, the right to information, the validity of legal presumptions, the burden of proof, the right to be presumed innocent and the right to a speedy trial, will be briefly discussed. The magnitude of white‐collar crime in South Africa and on a global level is staggering, as proven by the following figures: a total number of 58,668 commercial crime cases were reported to the Commercial Crime component of the South African Police's Detective Service during 1997. These cases had a total value of R3,609,926,736. In the first six months of 1998, 29,556 cases were reported with a value of R2,170,000,000.

In this paper we have argued that the reasons for the unusually high level of unofficial strike action in Ireland has little to do with the nature of the industrial relations system, or with any deep‐seated historical ideological conflict among the principal interest groups. Rather it was the marked departure in public policy in relation to pay and collective bargaining that were the principal causes of high proportions of unofficial strikes. Our basic view about unofficial strikes is that they arise because of the presence of some structural rigidity, which, in turn, results from the nature of the bargaining structure. For example, an extended period of centralized pay bargaining leads to a stiffening of local employer‐employee relationships and procedures which, previously in a decentralized structure, were more flexible and less strict and precise in their formulation and application. This change in the bargaining structure leads to increased levels of unofficial action for a variety of reasons, which are discussed in the paper. There are also other contextual and structural factors which may influence or intensify levels of unofficial action: the type of work in which people are engaged, the strike issue, sector ownership, industry, trade union, and firm size.