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The malfunction variables of power stations are related to the areas of weather, physical structure, control and load behaviour. To predict temporal power failure is difficult due to their unpredictable characteristics. As high accuracy is normally required, the estimation of failures of short-term temporal prediction is highly difficult. This study presents a method for converting stochastic behaviour into a stable pattern, which can subsequently be used in a short-term estimator. For this conversion, K-means clustering is employed, followed by Long-Short-Term Memory (LSTM) and Gated Recurrent Unit (GRU) algorithms are used to perform the Short-term estimation. The environment, the operation and the generated signal factors are all simulated using mathematical models. Weather parameters and load samples have been collected as part of a data set. Monte-Carlo simulation using MATLAB programming has been used to conduct experimental estimation of failures. The estimated failures of the experiment are then compared with the actual system temporal failures and found to be in good match. Therefore, for any future power grid, there is a testbed ready to estimate the future failures.

Purpose – We summarize three previous neuroeconomic studies with two features that distinguish them from most others in experimental economics: (1) the use of physical pain to induce incentives and (2) acquisition of data on brain activation levels. By correlating behavior when payoffs are painful with brain activation, we are able to test for the neurobiological relevance of important phenomena previously observed in experimental studies that are at odds with classical economic theories of decision-making. These specific phenomena are (a) negative discounting of future payoffs; (b) nonlinear probability weighting; (c) the experience of regret and rejoice when making a decision under risk.

Methodology/approach – The expectation of pain is created through the use of mild electric shocks to the top of the foot. Pain confers disutility, so decisions are made in the domain of losses relative to the status quo. Simultaneous with these decisions, brain activation data is acquired through functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI).

Findings – We find evidence for negative time discounting of electric shocks. Participants who exhibited the most extreme forms of this discounting were distinguished by early and robust activation of a subset of the cortical pain matrix. We also find evidence for probability weighting in the domain of electric shocks, which is manifest at the neural level. We find evidence both behaviorally and neurally for regret and rejoice functions for painful outcomes.

Originality/value of chapter – Previous experimental economic studies in the domain of losses have typically used monetary rewards. Here, we report behavioral effects and neural correlates using pain.

Purpose – The purpose of this study was to determine the efficacy value of national street lighting on energy conservation and carbon dioxide (CO₂) emission reduction.

Design/Methodology/Approach – The methods used are the measurement of electrical parameters (low voltage network), the national road illumination level with SON lamp specification, 400 W, 180 W, and 110 Lumen/W, the simulation of energy conservation calculation, and the CO₂ emission reduction obtained by utilizing panel solar cells as a source of energy and LED lights for illumination.

Finding – The results show the efficacy of a 100-W light bulb at an altitude of 8 m for the following specification of light bulbs: LED, 130 Lumens/W, SON, 110 Lumen/W, and MBF, 53 Lumen/W gives the illumination level respectively 13,913 Lux, 11,773 Lux, and 5,672 Lux. By replacing the 180 W SON lamp with an LED, 100 W, of energy conservation by 3.171 GW h is obtained, which is equivalent to a CO₂ emission reduction of 3.641 kTon CO₂.

Originality/Value – This study is a continuation of a study of energy conservation with the utilization of solar cells as an electrical power source for an LED bulb that replaces low-voltage networks as a power source for the bulb type SON.

The role of railways within urban areas is analysed, covering ‘metro’ systems (self-contained heavy rail networks, often with substantial underground sections), light rail (both upgraded street tramways and newer systems), and travel by regional and national railways within urban areas. Basic operating characteristics, system capacity, capital costs, and technological change are examined. ‘Sustainability’ is analysed in respect of energy use and environmental impact, railways’ role in supporting high-density urban living (with associated benefits through greater use of non-motorised modes), and financial aspects (coverage of operating costs and ability to finance capital renewals). Current issues examined include the effect of users shifting to more flexible working patterns, the Covid pandemic, automation, and ownership. In general, urban railways can be seen to support a sustainable lifestyle, although some issues do arise in respect of longer distance commuting.

In the 1930s, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were developed as safe, non-reactive alternatives to toxic and explosive refrigerants and propellants such as ammonia, chloromethane, and sulfur dioxide. American engineer Thomas Midgley famously demonstrated these properties by inhaling Freon (CFC-12) and blowing out a candle with it. He was presented with many awards for his discoveries, such as the Perkin, Priestley, and William Gibbs medals. In today's jargon, CFCs might have been called an eco-innovation, because they provided solutions to several environmental issues. However, CFCs solved environmental problems by creating others. In 1974, Sherwood Rowland and Mario Molina published their pathbreaking research that demonstrated CFCs were depleting the ozone layer. In 1989, the Montreal Protocol, which regulates a global phaseout of CFCs, entered into force. A few years later, in 1995, Rowland and Molina received the Nobel Price in Chemistry. The new substitutes for CFCs, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), have no known effects on the ozone layer but are extremely potent greenhouse gases (GHGs) and thus subject to the Kyoto Protocol.