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This study attempts to find the socio‐economic factors behind the differential achievement level in adult literacy in developing countries.

Considers a number of theories. These include modernization theory, dependency/world systems theory, developmental state theory, new human ecology theory and convergence‐divergence theory as an explanation of the differential level of adult literacy rate.

The findings reveal the importance of the initial level of adult literacy and the population growth. Similarly short‐term economic growth has a significant impact on the initial level of adult literacy, and the medium human development and low human development samples

This attempt to find the factors behind adult literacy is of importance not only as a constituent indicator of the human development index, but also through its various contributions towards economic growth.

The present study utilizes institutional theory as a framework to analyze human resource (HR) practices in the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, and Hong Kong. It looks at the influence that environmental factors such as social and political systems, legislation, the power of labor unions and trade associations have on the adoption of HR practices. The salient institutional characteristics of the three Chinese societies are described, and then the influence of unions and labor legislation at the firm level are highlighted. In addition, the HR function and current human resource management (HRM) practices are explored using four distinct dimensions of HRM practices (i.e. staffing, training, performance evaluation, and compensation) among the three Chinese societies. The configurations of HR systems are quite different across the three Chinese societies. This paper attempts to explain the similarities and differences in HRM practices from the perspective of institutional theory. Practical implications and future research directions are provided.

The purpose of this paper is to participate in the convergence‐divergence debate related to the trends in European human resource management (HRM). The paper evaluates the converging vs diverging implications in Estonia and Finland by comparing HR strategies, policies and practices between the two countries in the context of HRM in the Nordic and EU‐15 countries.

The research is part of a large international comparative HRM project (CRANET), which covers over 30 countries. Empirical data were collected by a survey questionnaire mailed to large private and public organisations employing over 200 employees. The Estonian survey data involve 69 organisations and the Finnish data 269. The data cover private companies and public sector organisations.

The comparison of HRM in Estonia and Finland revealed a few interesting empirical observations: First, in spite of Estonia's short history as an independent Baltic state, HRM has stabilised its position at both strategic and policy level's as well as in HR practices. Second, there is a converging (directional) trend between Estonian and Finnish HRM. Third, the Estonian HRM matches with the EU‐15 HRM; Estonia does not increase diversity in the European HRM.

The main limitation of the study is related to survey methodology. In further research longitudinal data as well as case studies and triangulation are needed to open country‐level trends in the convergence‐divergence debate.

Estonian companies and public organisations might need to pay more attention to equality/diversity policy. Special attention should be paid to HRM in public organisations.

The main value of the paper is related to the contribution to the convergence debate in HRM.

Existing work on convergence/divergence among HRM practices in MNCs and local firms mainly focuses on Europe and the USA. Limited research examines these organizations in Pakistan, hindering our understanding of what policies MNCs are likely to adopt there as well as the extent of any differences between HRM in MNC subsidiaries and local firms. The purpose of this paper is to examine the similarities and differences between the HRM practices of MNC subsidiaries and domestic firms to assess if there is evidence for convergence or divergence.

The authors targeted MNC subsidiaries and domestically owned firms working in the banking, information technology and pharmaceutical sectors in Pakistan. These sectors have enjoyed a steady inflow of foreign direct investment and have a sizeable number of MNC subsidiaries. Out of 1,081 companies, some 392 participated in a face-to-face survey (response rate of 36.4 percent). The authors ran a series of binary logistic regression models to test the hypothesized relationships between HR practices and nationality of ownership.

The authors reveal that a small minority of both types of firm use some practices, such as high compensation contingent on performance and performance review, appraisal and career development. However, domestic firms use some practices, such as extensive training, performance appraisals and performance-related pay significantly less than their multinational counterparts. The authors argue that these differences reflect institutional influences in Pakistan as well as a potential opportunity for local firms to change their HRM practices. In other areas, such as recruitment and employee involvement, there are no differences between the two groups.

The authors deepen our understanding of the types of HR practices that local companies in an emerging economy are likely to adopt as well as those that they are unlikely to adopt. Existing research has tended to downplay HRM in Pakistan and the different use of individual HRM practices among MNC subsidiaries and local firms. This research reveals that some companies in Pakistan have sophisticated HRM practices in place in some areas; however, MNC subsidiaries make greater use of some HR practices, reflecting different cultural norms between the two groups.

The purpose of this study is to investigate the convergence and divergence aspects of the Russian modernisation experience of c.1450–c.1600 and its role in both Russian history and management history.

This study combines in-depth data collection from multiple sources such as Russian Chronicles, eyewitness accounts (mostly by foreigners) and papers in history and management. The applied methodology also includes an examination of Ivan III’s modernisation initiative and its implementation in c.1450–c.1600. The analysis is conducted with an eye to understanding the extent to which Russian experiences converged or diverged from those found in Western Europe.

Russian modernisation is usually associated with Peter the Great. Early initiatives, such as those that occurred in Russia between 1462 (the ascent of Ivan III) and 1606 (the Time of Troubles) are overlooked. This paper, however, argues that without these earlier modernisation efforts Russia would not have survived as a country. Given the central role that Russia has played in European and world history, and understanding of this period is key to comprehending the modern world and global systems of management.

This paper seeks to understand a decisive period in Russian history and Russian management, highlighting the extent to which Russian experiences both diverged and converged with those found in Western Europe.

The paper helps us to understand both the successes and problems of Russian management since the 15th century.

To the best of author’s knowledge, this study is the first to consider Russian modernisation during the period c.1400–c.1600 with an eye to current debates in convergence/divergence theory.

The purpose of this paper is to explore and discuss possible solutions to integrate the concepts of smart city (SC) and intellectual capital management, especially referring to structural capital. On the basis of this, the authors propose a theoretical framework that highlights the relevance of structural capital for strategic and operational planning of smarter cities.

Using a neuropsychological analogy, the authors assume that the development of SCs corresponds to the development of a sensorial or even a nervous system for cities based on their structural capital, and the development of city intellectual capital (CIC) corresponds to a further phase of the cities’ mind development. The authors propose a practical framework that combines the concepts of city nervous system and city mind. It can be used as an instrument for project management. In this model, sensorial data – associated with the implementation of cities’ sensorial systems – should naturally contribute with open data to the development of higher abstract functions that in turn supports the creation of CIC.

This paper highlights the interrelations between intellectual capital (IC) (especially its structural component) and SC and their synergic capability of improving both an SC’s competitiveness and sustainability, and by this illustrates the benefits of combining both concepts in a common theoretical framework.

Given the paper’s theoretical nature, the empirical validation of the proposed framework is missing. This limitation will be addressed in forthcoming empirical research.

By proposing a framework that combines the concepts of SC and IC, the paper contributes to theory development regarding the strategic management of cities and the application of IC.

This paper aims to explore the importance of the role of national business systems (NBS) in shaping human resource management (HRM) and organisational behaviour (OB) practices in the context of Asian countries. To this end, this paper presents a comparative overview of different NBS in selected Asian countries and how these variously impact HRM and OB at two levels and contexts, i.e. within and cross-national.

The paper presents a topical review of the literature to unravel the complexity and challenges associated with studying this rich and complex area.

The findings suggest there is significant complexity in studying the impact of NBS on HRM and OB at a holistic and multi-level unit of analysis. The multiplicity of factors and levels of analysis, even at a level of within country analysis, highlights the sophisticated, in-depth and detailed nature of scholarship needed to unbundle and get a fuller understanding of this topic.

Although recent research presents a within and cross-national analysis of NBS and its impact on HRM and OB practices from diverse Asian countries such as India, Japan, Indonesia and Malaysia, recent research offers only a focused analysis of few targeted HRM and OB practices, rather than a collective or a bundle of HRM practices.

The contributions point to several practical implications for HR managers as well as managers from other fields, covering several national and cross-national comparisons.

This paper offers a substantial contribution in the understanding of how various HRM and OB practices are embedded in a nation’s business system and through a variety of historical and cultural influences.

In times of rapid change, organizations need employees who combine creativity with wide knowledge and experience. But many organizations base their personnel policies on the myth that, in early adulthood, the brain begins to decay and decline irreversibly – making age and creativity incompatible. Many older adults internalize an equally negative view of their own mental powers. Such ageist misconceptions block off many older adults from work which they could perform excellently. Examines the superseded research which supported this pessimistic prognosis for older adults, together with recent work which indicates that the human brain remains plastic throughout life. Outlines an action plan for developing and maintaining lifelong creativity. Describes the characteristics of intelligent failures since creative behaviour entails risk taking and some inevitable failures. Given opportunity and motivation, adults can master new subjects, acquire new skills, learn to behave more creatively at any age.

Drawing on a range of literature, this paper develops a theoretical model of the cross‐national transfer of HRM practices in multinational corporations (MNCs). This model integrates the significant research on transferability, transfer mechanisms, effects of transfer, and reverse transfer to produce a comprehensive analytical framework. A three‐fold analysis of transferability is presented to include national, company and HRM practice level. The transfer mechanisms are categorized into direct and indirect methods. The analysis of reverse transfer is not only a complement to the forward transfer but also an important part of the integrated model. The model reflects the complexity of cross‐national transfer HRM practices in MNCs. The propositions presented and suggestions for future research serve to aid further practical studies.

The purpose of this paper is to present results from a pilot research into the Chinese real estate confidence index, called CRE index, with regard to three diverse aspects, including effective demand and supply, potential demand, and potential supply, and to develop an effective tool for diversity management at different levels in the Chinese real estate market.

To undertake this research, a novel methodology framework is introduced in terms of the three aspects. Extensive literature review and questionnaire survey are systematically adopted accordingly to work out three individual sub‐indices, and to compose the entire CRE index.

The research put forward a novel approach to describing the changing situations of the Chinese real estate market by means of the CRE index, which is synthetically calculated based on its three sub‐indices to reflect the three different aspects. For the calculation of the CRE index, data collected from government statistics and specific questionnaire survey are effectively used, and this proves a practical approach as proposed for the research.

Although the CRE index is proposed to be a generic indicator for the Chinese market, this research focuses only on a synthesized CRE index for the local real estate market in Shenzhen, and data collected are also limited from 1999 to 2003. However further research with more comprehensive data can draw an entire picture and provide more reliable forecast based on either local or national data in China.

As it is a generic indicator to reflect changes in the Chinese real estate market, the CRE index provides all stakeholders with a quantitative method to verify history and detect tendency with regard to the progressive development of the market which is influenced by dynamic social and natural conditions.

The CRE index has been developed as a tool to support diversity management in the Chinese real estate market, and it is assumed that governors at local, regional, and national levels can all use this tool in macroeconomic regulation and control towards the Chinese real estate market. Others, including developers, investors as well as consumers can all make informed judgments based on the value and trend of the CRE index.

The CRE index uniquely incorporates comprehensive market data and statistics, including historic data from government statistics and current information from questionnaire survey and literatures, into confidence index calculation. In this regard, comparing with other confidence indices for the real estate market, this method is capable of providing more informed predications, especially when statistical data are full and accurate.