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The paper aims to illustrate a numerical technique to calculate fields and inductances of rotating electrical machines.

The technique is based on an integral formulation of the nonlinear magnetostatic model in terms of the unknown magnetization. The solution is obtained by means of a Picard-Banach iteration whose convergence can be theoretically proved.

The proposed method has been used to build a model of a large turbine generator. In particular, the influence of end effects on flux linkages has been computed. It has been demonstrated that the 2D solution underestimates the flux linkages as well as the no load voltage of 2 per cent, while the leakage fluxes are computed by the 2D solution with errors as high as 20 per cent.

The method is advantageous in comparison to standard methods.

The purpose of this paper is to present a numerical approach for the computation of 3D magnetic fields in rotating electrical machines. The technique is suitable for the computation of flux densities and forces in the end windings of large synchronous turbo generators (TG).

The magnetostatic FEM model of the generator end windings is carried out for different displacements of the rotor axis to the stator magnetomotive force (MMF) axis. The method is based on a parallel integral formulation allowing to substantially reduce the computational effort.

The computational model requires only the discretization of magnetic materials and conductors and is fast enough for carrying out 3D analyses on a time scale fast enough for the needs of the designer. As far as the present application is concerned, the analysis of a synchronous generator in the class of 300‐400 MVA has shown that the most stressed elements of the armature conductors are those closer to the stator ends. The study demonstrates that the maximum stress component on the end windings is axial and is achieved when the MMF is aligned to the direct axis.

The present approach combining an efficient integral formulation, the sparsification of the relevant matrices and the parallel implementation of the related algorithms gives rise to an original computational tool that allows a more accurate description of the machine in comparison to other numerical simulations that can be found in the literature.

To provide a brief illustration of how the circumstances of economic underdevelopment and ecological decline are reciprocally linked, we can begin by tracing the post‐World War II history of Africa. Political histories of the post‐war period abound for almost all parts of the continent, since it was during this era that many African colonies struggled for and won political independence. Detailed ecological histories of colonialism and the post‐colonial states, however, are just beginning to be researched and written. Nevertheless, several broad patterns and general trends of this history are now becoming apparent, and they can be set forth in rough narrative form even though detailed histories have yet to be compiled.