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The purpose of this paper is to study the use of potential scope reductions in major construction projects for special-purpose buildings. Scope reductions may result in buildings that are less fit for purpose; this will be negative according to a facilities management perspective. The paper discuses to what extent this is the case. Potential reductions of project scope have been a tool for cost control of governmental investments in Norway since 2001.

The study is based on lists of possible reductions that were identified in the early phase of the projects. Information about the outcome of these possible reductions is collected from eleven public building projects.

In the studied projects, reduction lists were equivalent to 2.7 per cent of projects budgets, ranging from 0 to 9 per cent. Contingencies for these projects were 9.5 per cent on average, ranging from 5 to 13 per cent. The reduction lists were typically smaller than the contingencies’ lists. Seven of 11 studied projects had reduction lists established during the front-end phase. Only two projects implemented some of the reductions. These reductions were general reductions of the quality of spaces.

Empirical research results are based on Norwegian experiences. Results are compared to international practices. Future research can include comparisons between facilities projects and other types of investments.

The Norwegian reduction lists can be seen as a type of value engineering. The studied potential reductions are based on an unusually high degree of specification of the potential actions for cost control. International best practice is more concerned with general approaches. The practice of identifying specific potential reductions has little use as an active tool for controlling costs. General reduction options work better than specific reductions. The potential scope reductions do not appear to be a threat in a facilities management perspective.

This is the first study of how potential reductions have been used in public building projects. The findings are of interest related to cost control of major investments in facilities.

Logistics as a sector has a key role to play in reducing greenhouse gas emissions and in reducing the dependency of our economy on non-renewable energy sources. The challenges are enormous: by 2050 the sector needs to have achieved about 50% lower fossil fuel use and CO₂ emissions. If freight volumes grow according to expectations, this requires over 70% less CO₂ emissions per unit of transport. This chapter explores the options for reducing CO₂ emissions from freight transport and their reduction potential, and analyses whether the logistic sector would be likely to achieve the required reduction based on its intrinsic drive for cost reduction alone.

In this conceptual chapter we identify options for sustainable logistics and discuss the necessary economic conditions for their deployment using a simple cost/benefit analysis framework. We distinguish between three regimes of measures for improving sustainability: efficiency measures with net negative costs (‘low hanging fruit’), cost-neutral measures and measures that allow to reach societal targets at net positive costs. Policy measures are discussed that may help the sector to implement cost-effective greenhouse gas abatement measures that, in the absence of incentives, go beyond the point of lowest cost from an end user perspective.

Sufficient energy saving options are available to be implemented in the short to medium term, which can lead to operational cost savings with a short return on investments period. The potential contribution of the logistics sector to sustainability is larger, however, as logistics can make large steps ahead in sustainability with cost neutrality or with small cost increases. The full potential has been underrated by many stakeholders and should be explored further.

Efficiency measures are a necessary but insufficient condition for sustainable logistics. The industry will need to go beyond cost saving measures, or even cost-neutral measures to reach the long-term energy saving and emission reduction targets for freight transport. We provide a systematic presentation of these options and discuss the additional necessary measures.

The purpose of this paper is to examine a greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction potential from different waste management practices in Croatia. Energetic, environmental and economic benefits can be accomplished by utilizing municipal solid waste (MSW) and landfill gas as fuel in industry and energy sector, which is emphasized in this paper. The paper gives an overview of measures for energy recovery from MSW and landfill gas that could be implemented in Croatia. These measures also represent measures for an additional GHG emission reduction by decreased use of fossil fuels.

A methodology used for emission calculation (kinetic model) is explained. Three different scenarios of GHG reduction in waste management were defined. Implementation of best available techniques in waste management is envisaged by cross‐sectoral impact and effect of respective measures. Findings –This paper gives maximum achievable potential of GHG emission reduction with defined measure implementation dynamics. It was calculated that around one million ton of CO₂ can be avoided in 2020, which is 2.7 percent of projected GHG emissions in Croatia. The energy that could be recovered from waste (8.34 PJ in 2020) is relatively small in relation to the total final energy consumption in Croatia (about 3 percent).

The novelty of this work is achieved through integrated approach to GHG emission reduction and energy potential from MSW management in Croatia. The GHG reduction potentials are calculated by taking into account dependencies and interactions between the measures.

The purpose of this paper is to analyze the extent to which weather index‐based insurances can contribute to reducing shortfall risks of revenues of a representative average farm that produces corn or wheat in the North China Plain (NCP). The geographical basis risk is quantified to analyze the spatial dependency of weather patterns between established weather stations in the area and locations where the local weather patterns are unknown.

Data are based on the Statistical Yearbook of China and the Chinese Meteorological Administration. Methods of insurance valuation are burn analysis and index value simulation. Risk reduction is measured non‐parametrically and parametrically by the change of the standard deviation and the value at risk of revenues. The geographical basis risk is quantified by setting up a decorrelation function.

Results suggest significant differences in the potential risk reduction between corn and wheat when using insurance based on a precipitation index. The spatial analysis suggests a potential to expand the insurance around a reference weather station up to community level.

Findings are limited by a weak database in China and, in particular, by the unavailability of individual farm data. Moreover, the low density of weather stations currently limits the examination of the approach in a broader context.

The risk reduction potential of the proposed insurance is encouraging. From a policy point of view, the approach used here can support the adjustment of insurers towards different crops.

This paper is believed to be the first that investigates a weather index‐based insurance designed for an average farm in the NCP and the quantification of geographical basis risk.

The purpose of this study is to improve the performance of sodium borohydride in reducing indigo at room temperature, the divalent copper ion complex was combined with electrochemical technology for the reduction of indigo by sodium borohydride.

According to the K/S value of the dyed cloth sample, find a more suitable ligand for the copper ion in the catholyte. Response surface analysis tests were performed to evaluate the effects of sodium borohydride concentration, sodium hydroxide concentration and copper sulfate pentahydrate concentration on the reduction potential of the dye solution and the K/S value of the dyed fabric samples.

Sodium gluconate was found to be a more suitable ligand for copper ions in catholyte. The effects of NaOH concentration as well as the interaction of NaBH₄ and NaOH on the reduction potential of the catholyte and the K/S value of the dyed fabric samples were extremely significant. The optimal concentrations of NaBH₄, NaOH and CuSO₄•5H₂O were 0.5, 2.5 and 0.65 g/L. In the case of the optimized condition, the absolute value of the reduction potential was 968, and the K/S value was 11.92, which is comparable with that of the conventional reduction process with sodium dithionite.

The divalent copper ion complex combined with electrochemical technology was applied in the process of reducing indigo with NaBH₄ at room temperature.

The purpose of this paper is to examine the potential of biogas in India for energy conservation and its potential in emission reduction through proper manure management and utilizing the tappable droppings while replacing the conventional and non-conventional fuel.

The authors have looked at the production, use and tappability of animal excreta for possible biogas generation and reduction in fuelwood consumption on one hand and emission reduction across the Indian states on the other. The average percentage of Biogas potential is created in the GIS database for analyzing the data set in the spatial domain using ArcGIS 9.2 software.

The paper examines that unused manure contributes to the greenhouse gas (GHG) and has huge potential of reducing the emission through proper utilization across the Indian states. Keeping current climate change dilemma in view this could be one of the feasible options to cope with the climate change and mitigating the threats.

A comprehensive data regarding methane emission from various sources is not readily available so far. With the help of this research work the authentic data has been collected from different government departments’ data banks and past research work. However, the authors have limited to few conversion aspects in quantifying the emission factor due to complexity of the various data sets.

Looking at the availability of usable animal excreta in different climatic regions, the attempt has been made in demarcating economically viable and technically feasible areas for biogas generation in India. An environmental and economic cost benefit analysis for adopting this renewable energy source has also been incorporated within this research.

The paper examined the GHG contribution of unused manure and the possibility of reducing it through proper utilization. The adverse environmental consequences of the use of conventional and non-conventional cooking fuels have also been analyzed in terms of GHG emissions. The same was assessed for the whole lifecycle of liquefied petroleum gas, which is commonly assumed as a clean fuel.

The purpose of this paper is to examine the intention of companies to reduce transportation emissions by 2020 and the barriers and the discriminating factors that affect the reduction.

A literature review identified potential logistical and technical actions and their barriers, and discriminating factors for reducing transportation emissions. A survey of freight transport-intensive industries in Sweden examined the effects of, intention for implementation of and barriers to 12 actions to reduce CO₂ emissions from freight transportation. In total, 172 logistics managers responded, representing a response rate of 40.3 per cent.

Logistics service providers (LSPs) and freight owners are likely to reduce a considerable amount of CO₂ emissions from freight transportation by 2020 using a combination of actions. The lowest level of confidence was for reducing CO₂ emissions by changing logistics structures, while there was greater confidence by means of operational changes. The actions have few barriers, but there is often a combination of barriers to overcome. Three discriminating factors influence the intention of a firm to reduce transportation emissions: perceived potential, company size and LSP/freight owner. The industrial sector of a freight owner has minor influence. Companies that are particularly likely to reduce emissions are LSPs, large companies, and those that perceive a large reduction potential.

Logistical and technical barriers appear to hinder companies from implementing actions, while organisational barriers and external prerequisites do not. Barriers cannot be used to predict companies’ intentions to reduce transportation emissions. The authors examined the impact of three discriminating factors on reduction of transportation emissions. The research is based on perceptions of well-informed managers and on companies in Sweden.

The findings can be used by managers to identify firms for benchmarking initiatives and emissions-reducing strategies.

The study provides insights into intended CO₂ reductions in transportation by 2020. It presents new knowledge regarding barriers and discriminating factors for implementing actions to reduce transportation emissions.

The University of A Coruña (UDC) elaborated the SOSTAUGA project, aiming to reach a higher sustainable level of its water management. SOSTAUGA defined four priority points of action: the restoration of the natural courses on the campus; the adoption of an ecological sanitation model; the sustainable management of urban runoff; and the reduction of water consumption in university facilities and activities. This paper aims to present the methodology, the actions and the results related to the reduction of water consumption and the potential for the use of endogenous resources.

The agents involved were the senior management of the centres, the committees of the Green Campus, the scholarship students and the Office for the Environment. Several actions have been experienced: audit of water consumption in sanitary services; flow reduction in washbasin taps by means of valve adjustment (and repair of the valves when necessary); replacement of tap aerators with other more eco-efficient ones; replacement of faucets; introduction of dual-flush (DF) in cisterns; and information to users (eco-label).

Water audit reached 68% of the total number of washbasins and tanks in the UDC. Efficient aerator installation covered 16% of taps and valve adjustment covered the further 33.5% and provided flow reduction of 42%. Another 20% of valve units required repair. The current situation in toilets combines tankless flush valves and cisterns with single flush mechanisms. The introduction of DF mechanisms was assessed and proposed. The cost of these actions was very low, as evidenced by the investment return period while showing a high potential for user awareness.

Both from the environmental (water saving) and from the economic and social points of view, this study shows that similar projects aimed at the efficient and rational use of water are applicable to the universities and other public and private schools, with potentially positive results on sustainability and people awareness.

This paper aims to overview the need for tobacco harm reduction, the consumer products that facilitate tobacco harm reduction and the barriers to its implementation. The worldwide endemic of tobacco smoking results in the death of over seven million smokers a year. Cigarette quit rates are very low, from 3%–12%, and relapse rates are high, from 75%–80% in the first six months and 30%–40% even after one year of abstinence. In addition, some smokers do not desire to quit. Cigarette substitution in tobacco harm reduction is one strategy that may reduce the burden of morbidity and mortality.

This review examines the displacement of smoking through substitution of non-combustible low-risk products such as snus, heated tobacco products and e-cigarettes.

Toxicological testing, population studies, clinical trials and randomized controlled trials demonstrate the potential reductions in exposures for smokers. Many barriers impede the implementation of product substitution in tobacco harm reduction. These products have been subjected to regulatory bans and heavy taxation and are rejected by smokers and society based on misperceptions about nicotine, sensational media headlines and unsubstantiated fears of youth addiction. These barriers will need to be addressed if tobacco harm reduction is to make the maximum impact on the tobacco endemic.

This review provides the rationale for tobacco harm reduction, evaluates the current products available and identifies the barriers to implementation.

The purpose of this paper is to investigate the mechanism and performance of a potential strategy, which is to enhance turbulence to carry out drag reduction for heavy trucks.

Enhancing turbulence deflector (ETD) was placed on the roof surface of an ground transportation system (GTS) to investigate the drag reduction mechanism of enhancing turbulence. Transition shear-stress transport improved delay detach eddy simulation model was adopted to simulate the unsteady small-scale flow around the ETD.

By optimizing the three influencing factors, diameter, streamwise length and streamwise position, the optimized ETD has achieved a maximum drag reduction of 7.04%. The analysis of flow field results shows that enhancing turbulence can effectively suppress flow separation and reduce the negative pressure intensity in the wake region of GTS.

The present work provides another potential possibility for the improvement of the aerodynamic performance of heavy trucks.