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This chapter offers a survey of education development in the Middle East and North Africa region (MENA), and how the different crises have changed the global dynamics in education. This chapter first gives an overview of the regional context and the history of education in the region, followed by a discussion of the education developments in the region as shaped by the economic growth of high-income countries and the political upheavals in low-income countries. MENA states have made huge investments in their educational systems through implementing major changes in the education policies and introducing initiatives to improve the quality of education in their countries. However, the educational system in the region has not reaped the benefits of these reforms as it has not met the desired goals. The quality of students’ learning is very low as reflected in the poor rating by international assessments such as PISA, TIMSS and PIRLS. Structural educational reforms to foster citizenship and civic responsibility are urgently needed. Good governance of the education systems of the MENA countries, a critical thinking skills-based curriculum and strong market-oriented skills and vocational training programs are necessary for MENA to become economically competitive and reliably democratic.

This study employs Stein Rokkan's methodological approach to analyse state formation in the Greater Middle East. It develops a conceptual framework distinguishing colonial, populist and democratic pacts, suitable for analysis of state formation and nation-building through to the present period. The framework relies on historical institutionalism. The methodology, however, is Rokkan's. The initial conceptual analysis also specifies differences between European and the Middle Eastern state formation processes. It is followed by a brief and selective discussion of historical preconditions. Next, the method of plotting singular cases into conceptual-typological maps is applied to 20 cases in the Greater Middle East (including Afghanistan, Iran and Turkey). For reasons of space, the empirical analysis is limited to the colonial period (1870s to the end of World War 1). Three typologies are combined into one conceptual-typological map of this period. The vertical left-hand axis provides a composite typology that clarifies cultural-territorial preconditions. The horizontal axis specifies transformations of the region's agrarian class structures since the mid-19th century reforms. The right-hand vertical axis provides a four-layered typology of processes of external intervention. A final section presents selected comparative case reconstructions. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first time such a Rokkan-style conceptual-typological map has been constructed for a non-European region.

States in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) have historically leaned towards conservative, reactionary models of drugs policy. The combination of authoritarian forms of government, whether dynastic monarchies (Morocco, Jordan and Persian Gulf countries), semi-military republics (Syria, Egypt and Algeria) or religiously sanctioned republics (Iran), with the strong influence of Islamic law and norms, has signified that the region has enforced strict forms of drug prohibitions. For that matter, the region is home to cultural and social norms that are less permissive than in other regions of the world: for instance, with regard to premarital sex, homosexuality, clothing, alcoholic drinks and freedom of expression. This image of the MENA region is often overplayed by media commentators and Western scholars, especially in the field of drugs policy. The almost total absence of studies of drugs policy or drugs history in the MENA, excluding works in epidemiology, speaks well about the oblivion to which the region has been relegated over the last decades. The chapter provides first a background on the main questions regarding MENA drugs policy, looking at the historical developments in drug regulations and drug trends. Then, it discusses the current policies that operate across the region and, if pertinent, the prospects of policy development. When necessary, the argument refers to contextual elements that have influenced the direction in national and transitional drugs policy. Conscious of the fact that the MENA is as vast and diverse as a continent, I have opted to focus on three paradigmatic cases (Iran, Lebanon and Saudi Arabia), which provide an adequate geographical and thematic coverage of the MENA drugs policy. The three cases cover different aspects of today’s MENA drugs policy spectrum, from draconian repressive measures to progressive harm reduction programmes. Taken in their geographical dimension one can appreciate the variety and difference that exists within the MENA region, therefore supporting one of the key objectives of this chapter, which is to provide a nuanced analysis of drugs policy against the grain of homogenising and culturally reductive approaches.

The chapter explores the impact of the global knowledge economy upon education and social reform programmes in the Middle East. It highlights the difficulty of modifying school curricula to accord with a view of education which is based upon human capital formation coupled with standardised testing regimes designed to accommodate performativity; both of these phenomena being products of a neo-liberal agenda of the global north. The narrative considers the contrasting perspectives of regionally based Arab commentators, and it demonstrates the difficulty of reconciling the passionately held convictions of those who shun the modernist project with those who wish to embrace the democratic and social values of the global north. From his first-hand experience of government schools in the region, the author concludes with a plea for the formulation of education reforms which may succeed through more closely reflecting the cultural and educational traditions of the region rather than by the wholesale imposition of western values.

Purpose: Culture is not only shared, and it is often interpreted and expressed over time. Also, culture may lead to the promotion of creativity and innovation within a specific region and motivate individuals or groups to cultivate an entrepreneurial spirit. This chapter explores how companies can apply cultural influences differently and how governments/higher offices encourage cultural influences in innovation.

Design/methodology/approach: The chapter mainly aims at the technology trends in infrastructure and innovation in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. The chapter aims to demonstrate how culture is shaped by innovation in education, patterns, and how the education system has developed, benefiting upcoming entrepreneurs in regions like Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Oman, the United Arab Emirates, and Bahrain.

Findings: This chapter examines the cultural history of various cultures, improving and promoting economic innovation and competitiveness. Thus, innovation involves new product creation, whereas innovation involves using the existing application with a creative approach to address the problems. Innovation and entrepreneurship are interlinked and dependent on each other, which considers aspects like practices, tasks, and responsibilities.

Originality/value: This chapter of the book focuses on culture and innovation mainly, which affects technological trends and entrepreneurship. Also, the chapter would be beneficial for the educational department that progresses in development and encourages students toward creativity.