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The purpose of this paper is to increase our understanding of why firms, specifically small to medium‐sized enterprises (SMEs), participate in a programme for competence development and why firms use different strategies for competence development.

A study of 17 SMEs that all received support from the European Social Fund, Objective 3 programme. The collection of data is based on semi‐structured interviews with management/owners, internal project leaders, employees and union representatives, feedback seminars with representatives from the studied enterprises, and on analysis of documents.

The findings demonstrate that all SMEs reported driving forces for competence development relating to both external organizational conditions and internal organizational conditions, to at least a certain degree. Furthermore, there appears to be a strong relationship between observed patterns of driving forces and the strategy for competence development used by the firm.

The SMEs that experience a relatively stronger driving force for competence development initiate problem‐solving efforts to design and implement more elaborated strategies for competence development. The SMEs that experience a lesser degree of driving force for competence development implement less elaborated strategies for competence development.

The paper finds that both external and internal organizational conditions are important in understanding why SMEs undergo competence development programme. Furthermore, the importance of external and internal organizational conditions is not only limited to why the companies participate in a programme for competence development, but also for how they participate, i.e. the strategies used for competence development.

This paper aims to present a deflection model to improve positional accuracy of industrial robots. Earlier studies have demonstrated the lack of accuracy of heavy-duty robots when exposed to high external forces. One application where the robot is pushed to its limits in terms of forces is friction stir welding (FSW). This process requires the robot to deliver forces of several kilonewtons causing deflections in the robot joints. Especially for robots with serial kinematics, these deflections will result in significant tool deviations, leading to inferior weld quality.

This paper presents a kinematic deflection model, assuming a rigid link and flexible joint serial kinematics robot. As robotic FSW is a process which involves high external loads and a constant welding speed of usually below 50 mm/s, many of the dynamic effects are negligible. The model uses force feedback from a force sensor, embedded on the robot, and predicts the tool deviation, based on the measured external forces. The deviation is fed back to the robot controller and used for online path compensation.

The model is verified by subjecting an FSW tool to an external load and moving it along a path, with and without deviation compensation. The measured tool deviation with compensation was within the allowable tolerance for FSW.

The model can be applied to other robots with a force sensor.

The presented deflection model is based on force feedback and can predict and compensate tool deviations online.

This study aims to explore how managers exercise agency in strategic investment decisions (SIDs) by drawing on their knowledgeability of the strategic context. Specifically, the authors address the role of position–practice relations and irresistible causal forces in this conduct.

The authors examine SID-making (SIDM) practices in four case organisations operating in highly competitive markets, conducting interviews with managers at various levels and analysing company documents. Drawing on strong structuration theory, the authors show how managerial decision makers draw upon their knowledge of organisational context when exercising agency in SIDs.

The authors provide insights into how SIDM behaviour, specifically agents’ conduct, is shaped by a combination of position–practice relations and the agents’ comprehension of their organisation’s context.

The authors extend the SIDM literature by surfacing the issue of how actors’ conjuncturally-specific knowledge of external structures shapes the general dispositions they draw on in exercising agency in practice.

The authors extend the SIDM literature by surfacing the issue of how actors’ conjuncturally-specific knowledge of external structures shapes the general dispositions they draw on in exercising agency in practice. Particularly, the authors contribute to this literature by identifying irresistible causal forces and illuminating why actors might not resist in SIDM processes, despite having the potential to do so.

This study aims to focus on the factors triggering the adoption of corporate social responsibility (CSR) practices in a developing country context. The authors examine whether the adoption of CSR practices is triggered more by internal efficiency forces or external legitimation forces. As early adoptions of new systems are more likely driven by efficiency motives, the authors argue that CSR practices in developing countries at nascent stages are more likely adopted for efficiency rather than legitimation reasons.

A cross-sectional sampling design was used to collect data on the CSR practices of top listed Egyptian firms and multinationals operating in Egypt. The sample size is selected based on a purposive criterion sampling method. The final sample size consists of 110 companies operating in Egypt, which includes 54 local and 56 multinational companies. To examine the relationship between the explanatory variables of the study and CSR, multiple regression analysis was used.

Using data from 110 top listed local companies and multinational firms operating in Egypt, the results show a significant influence of internal corporate governance on CSR. Yet, the effects of external factors, specifically legal regulations and stakeholder pressures, on CSR are perceived to be insignificant. This finding contrasts studies from industrialized countries in the Western world where firms are often motivated to invest in CSR by external forces.

The results indicate that the adoption of CSR practices in large firms in Egypt is driven more by internal efficiency gains rather than external legitimacy pressures. The study thus presses the need for the effective enforcement of governmental laws and regulations to strengthen external institutional pressures and demands for socially responsible behavior.

The results of the study indicate a perceived absence of stakeholder pressure for CSR practices. As such, raising awareness for corporate accountability amongst Egyptian consumers, employees and the general public would increase corporate incentives to improve their social and environmental performance. In addition, the concept of CSR must be cultivated in the organizational culture where high value is placed on corporate ethics and managerial values.

This study provides insights about the predominant drivers of CSR in Egypt on two different levels; the organizational and the business environment. Salient links between CSR, internal corporate governance mechanisms and external drivers such as external stakeholder and legal pressures are explored. The results of the study also emphasize the importance of internal corporate governance mechanisms and how it is perceived to be the main driver of CSR in Egypt as opposed to external influences.

Having the right intent, aspiration, ability and attitude to become an entrepreneur has become the mantra in the extant literature to be driver of entrepreneurship and small and medium enterprise (SME) growth. Why would zealous and ambitious individuals with all rightful attributes so required of entrepreneurs have to fizzle out few years after venturing into business or SMEs? Perhaps these same individuals may relocate to other jurisdictions and would establish successful firms even beyond their imaginations. Beyond the individual’s entrepreneurial attributes, there are other external countervailing forces which either “enable” or “impede” entrepreneurial drive and SME growth processes. Adopting the theory of planned behavior, this study conceptualizes a systems framework to analyze how SMEs either flourish or fail in developing countries.

The study relies on secondary sources of data. It adopts a critical stage review of secondary data.

The study argues that the interplay of “internal factors” and “external factors” of prospective entrepreneurs provides a useful framework to explain the general SME outlook of an economy. The study postulates that many internally driven prospective SME entrants (with entrepreneurial attitudes, abilities and aspirations) mostly in the developing economies may have their dreams shattered because of obstructive external ecological elements which tend to frustrate new business entrants as well as existing ones.

With the aid of a framework, this study conceptualizes a comprehensive framework to analyze how SMEs either flourish or fail in developing countries.

This paper aims to develop a novel miniature 3-axis force sensor which can detect the interaction forces during tissue palpation in MIS (minimally invasive surgery). MIS offers many significant merits compared with traditional open surgery, the wound to the patients and the postoperative pains are alleviated and reduced dramatically. However, the inherent drawback due to lack of force feedback still exists while conducting some operation procedures. For example, tissue palpation performed easily during open surgery could not be realized in an MIS manner.

The force sensor is based on the resistive-based sensing method that utilizes strain gauges to measure the strain when the external loads are acting on the tip of the sensor. A novel flexible tripod structure with bending and compression deformations is designed to discriminate the magnitudes and directions of the three orthogonal force components. A linear characteristic matrix is derived to disclose the relationship between the sensitivity and the geometric parameters of the structure, and a straightforward geometric parameterized optimization method considering the sensitivity isotropy is proposed to provide the sensor structure with high sensitivity and adequate stiffness.

The sensor prototype can perform force measurement with sensing ranges of ± 3.0 N in axial direction and ± 1.5 N in radial direction, and the resolutions are 5 per cent and 1 per cent, respectively. It is concluded that this force sensor is compatible with MIS instruments and the ex-vivo experiment shows that the sensor can be used to perform tissue palpation during MIS procedures.

This paper is intended to address the significant role of force sensing and force feedback during MIS operations, and presents a new application of the resistive-based sensing method in MIS. A tripod structure is designed and a straightforward optimization method considering the sensitivity isotropy of the sensor is proposed to determine geometric parameters suited for the given external loads.

The purpose of this paper is to analyze the forces that prompted a Finnish food manufacturing company to implement environmental management system (EMS) and performance management system (PMS). The paper also aims to describe how and why environmental issues were integrated onto a balanced scorecard (BSC).

The paper utilizes both qualitative and longitudinal case study approaches. Semi‐structured interviews are the main source of empirical data; these were conducted by both researchers.

The forces driving the implementation of the EMS changed from external to internal forces over time. The initial purpose of EMS implementation was to obtain an environmental certificate. Later on the forces turned to internal ones when the causal link between improving environmental performance and profitability was recognized. The PMS implementation, as well as the PMS and EMS integration, had internal forces driving them. The company integrated environmental indicators into its BSC, which thus connected the EMS and PMS. This integration demonstrated the financial impacts of the environmental improvements.

The limitation relates to the methodological issues when the results can be generalized theoretically.

If dealing with environmental issues is considered to potentially increase profitability, there must be a great potential to improve environmental performance at the same time. If environmental measures are integrated into a BSC, they are monitored and discussed more precisely. The BSC is thus a worthwhile tool for reporting information on environmental performance. The construction of an EMS and a PMS requires a co‐operation between different functions and levels of the organization. Finally, the forces for improving EMS and PMS can emerge both from outside and inside.

This paper contributes to the empirical research on environmental and performance management by integrating these two issues, and also illustrates that forces are dynamic rather than static.

The aim of this paper is to prove that the manipulator is able to contact the environment compliantly, and reduce the instantaneous collision impact.

Cartesian impedance control law is introduced to interrelate the external force with the Cartesian position.

When the estimated external force sensor feedback is the input of the on‐line trajectory regeneration, a novel online motion plan could be performed in a task‐consistent manner keeping the interaction force within the acceptable tolerance. The proposed approach also proves that the manipulator is able to contact the environment compliantly, and reduce the instantaneous collision impact. The virtual decomposition control, simplifying the Cartesian impedance control application of the manipulator and guaranteeing the asymptotical stability of the entire system, is implemented to actualize the approach. Furthermore, adaptive dynamics joint controller is extended to all the joints for complementing the biggish friction.

With the proposed adaptive Cartesian impedance control and the online path planner, the robot will be manipulation‐friendly in an unstructured environment.

The paper seeks to analyze to what extent the contents of corporate governance codes of countries in the European Union are driven by external (internationally accepted corporate governance best practices) or domestic (institutions, culture, etc.) forces.

The paper compares the contents of codes with the priorities set by the European Commission with respect to modernising company law and enhancing corporate governance in the European Union.

The analysis shows that the majority of the codes of the European Union countries are not in full accordance with the priorities of the European Commission. This may reflect that codes are driven by both external and domestic forces. Whether there is a difference between Western European and Central and Eastern European countries in this respect is also investigated, but no difference, at least at the aggregate level of the codes of both groups of countries has been found.

The analysis excludes five (prospective) European Union members. The analysis does not provide a comprehensive overview of domestic determinants of why codes of individual countries diverge from the European Union communication. Future research should systematically explore whether and to what extent domestic forces are indeed determining the contents of codes and, if so, which country‐specific forces have an impact on establishing code contents.

This paper is the first comprehensive attempt to analyse the contents of corporate governance codes. Such an analysis is important to understand the underlying forces that shape the diffusion of codes and their contents.

This study seeks to understand how regulatory and competitive forces impact firms' actions and innovation performance. The study investigates how firms strategize internally and externally to address regulatory and competitive forces, and how such actions influence firms' innovation performance.

The data were collected via a survey of 217 managers of business organizations in Nigeria.

Regulatory forces have a positive relationship with both absorptive capacity (AC) and information sharing (IS). Competitive forces, on the other hand, only have a negative relationship with IS but not with AC. AC has a positive relationship with innovation performance, while IS, surprisingly, does not have a positive relationship with innovation performance.

The study contributes to knowledge by empirically validating the relationships between environmental forces and innovation performance; more importantly, the study uncovers the underlying factors, i.e. IS and AC that link environmental forces and firms' innovation performance.