Accredited investor
, 147–148
Additive manufacturing (AM)
, 107, 296
comparison between United States and countries in patenting activity
, 305
data, empirical strategy and methodology
, 308–310
data and descriptive statistics
, 301–306
distribution of granted patents and patent applications on
, 303
econometric findings
, 310–314
economies of scale, production stages and GVCs
, 299–300
effects
, 311–312
empirical evidence
, 306–310
and GVCs
, 298–301
patent as share of population
, 308, 310
in patents data
, 301–305
skill intensity and GVCs
, 300–301
technologies and applications
, 297–298
technology terms searched in USPTO databases
, 302
Advanced manufacturing
, (see Industry 4.0)
Alexa (Echo speaker)
, 210n3, 341
Alibaba
, (see also Amazon), 100, 193–194, 198–200, 328–329, 331, 335, 338–339
conceptual framework
, 329–335
findings
, 337–351
methodology
, 335–337
physical assets
, 341
statistics and facts on
, 336
Alphabet
, (see also Google), 20, 40
Amazon
, (see also Alibaba), 19, 92, 100, 188, 206, 329, 331, 338
business model
, 342
conceptual framework
, 329–335
Echo
, 340–341
findings
, 337–351
methodology
, 335–337
physical assets
, 341
statistics and facts on
, 336
Amazon Marketplace
, 341–342
Amazon Mechanical Turk
, 102, 331
Amazon Web Services (AWS)
, 198, 330, 341–342
America Makes
, 297, 315n1
ANPROTEC
, 398–399, 401–402
Anti-market “shelter strategies”
, 26
Apple
, 20, 46, 204
App Store
, 346
Application Full-Text and Image Database (AppFT)
, 302
Artificial intelligence (AI)
, 101, 104, 111, 341
“Asset-light” nature of Internet platforms
, 332
Assignee Country principle
, 316n9
Assisted-delivery services
, 352n6
Automated price-comparison algorithms
, 101
Canada–US Free Trade Agreement (CUSFTA)
, 23
Capital
access to
, 147–148
capital-intensive production
, 56
intensive products
, 17
Captive market exploitation
, 285–286
Case study approach
, 364–365
Centrality of supplied assets in user’s value-creation processes
, 289
Certified Public Account (CPA)
, 154–155
Chief executive officer (CEO)
, 222, 277
China
apparel value chain
, 332
Internet governance model
, 350
Internet regulations
, 348–349
MIIT
, 348
MNEs
, 334
platform economy
, 190
presence measurements in overseas markets
, 190–194
state-owned enterprises
, 334
tourism market
, 206
China Internet Network Information Center
, 190
China Manufacturing 2025
, 297, 315n2
China Smart Logistics
, 342
Chinese digital platform firms
Alibaba
, 198–200
Baidu
, 200–201
Chinese digital platforms globalization strategies
, 194–195
context for Chinese platform economy
, 190
future prospects for Chinese digital platform globalization
, 206–207
globalization of Chinese platform firms
, 202–205
measurements of Chinese presence in overseas markets
, 190–194
obstacles to Chinese digital platform globalization
, 207–208
Tencent
, 195–198
Chinese digital platform globalization
future prospects for
, 206–207
obstacles to
, 207–208
strategies
, 194–195
CIENTEC funding agencies
, 400
Classical IB theories
, 63
Cloud computing
, 66–67, 71, 380
Clusters
, 379–380
intricacies
, 380–384
reconciling cluster attributes with industry 4.0 features
, 384–386
Co-evolutionary process
, 247–248
Collaborative strategies
, 110
Competitiveness of Enterprises and Small and Mediumsized Enterprises (COSME)
, 167
Competitors
, 152
alignment of interests
, 153–154
global modular platform architectures
, 153
online presence
, 226
vertical disintegration
, 153
Complementary assets
, 288–289
Complex international value chains
, 381
Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR)
, 210n6
“Consumer proximity” logic
, 364
Consumer to business (C2B)
, 381
Consumer to consumer (C2C)
, 381
site
, 331
Contract manufacturing organisations (CMOs)
, 58
Cooperation among stakeholders
, 145
Corporate governance
, 146–147
Corporate marketing communication strategy
, 234
Corporate social responsibility (CSR)
, 92, 109
accounting
, 104
for MNCs
, 106–107
Cross-case analysis
, 369–371
Crowd-based organisations
, 109
Crowd-based value co-creation
, 106
Crowdlending platforms
, 103
Cryptocurrencies
, 141, 146
Cryptography
, 144
key
, 143
Customer relationship
deepening
, 285–286
diversification
, 287
management
, 372–374
Customers
, 150
direct costs
, 150
increased transaction speeds
, 150
increased transparency
, 151
Cyber physical systems (CPS)
, 363, 380
Cyber security standards
, 61
Cybersecurity
, 280, 284, 346
Cyberspace Administration of China
, 349
Decentralized control
, 144
Demand online marketplaces
characteristics of online marketplace for talent
, 251–267
innovation management
, 266–270
online marketplace for innovation
, 247–250
Design-build-deliver model
, 300
Digital capability
, 337–344
Digital content
, 339–340
category
, 46
producers
, 20
providers
, 46
Digital economy
, 16, 18, 21, 40, 62, 330–331
analytical framework
, 41–42
digitalisation of wider economy
, 52–60
firm typologies and business models
, 330–333
firms
, 20
investment policy challenges
, 60–62
MNEs
, 25, 42–52
new theories of international production
, 62–63
pervasiveness of
, 40–41
Digital FDI, geography of
, 50–51
Digital manufacturing
, 110
Digital MNEs
, 42
FDI by
, 44–50
geography of digital FDI
, 50–51
lightning-speed growth of
, 44
mapping
, 42–44
Digital platforms
, 152, 188
Digital presence growth
, 224
Digital relationships in B2B
, 219–221
“Digital servitization” logic
, 373
Digital solutions
, 20, 340–341
Digital technologies
, 58, 363
Digital transformation
, 55–56, 381–382
economic aspects of
, 381
Digitalisation
, (see also Internationalisation), 48, 56, 58
potential impact on international production
, 54–60
transformation
, 52–54
of wider economy
, 52
Direct manufacturing/rapid manufacturing (DM/RM)
, 298
Disciplinary fragmentation
, 97
Discriminatory hazards
, 30
Disintegrating innovation processes
, 246
Distributed manufacturing
, 20
Distributed production
, 56–58
“Domestic” dimension
, 234
E-commerce
, 20, 43, 72, 77, 92, 99–100, 160, 168, 338–339
category
, 46
globalization
, 198–199
usage on SME internationalisation
, 164–165
E-commerce corporations (ECCs)
, 332
e-Government Development Index
, 40
Earnings Before Interest, Taxes, Depreciation and Amortization (EBITDA)
, 223
eBay
, (see also Alibaba; Amazon), 19–20, 43, 100
EBSCO Business Source Complete
, 68
Education and research
, 69–70, 75
Electronic marketplaces
, 179
Electronically connected freelancers
, 250
Electronics and information technologies
, 17
Emerging nation multinational enterprises (EMNEs)
, 188–187, 329
Emerging technologies
, 359–360
markets
, 396
Empirical research
, 167–168
End-to-end supply chain
, 53, 56
Enterprise Resource Planning software
, 153
Entrepreneurial management and behavior
, 71, 77
Environment-level variables
, 169
Environmental technology
, 401
“Ether coin” transactions
, 143
European Commission (EC)
, 18
European Union (EU)
, 167, 358
Exchanging value
, 143–144
Exploratory approach
, 397
Extended disintermediation
, 59
Facebook
, 19–20, 66, 101, 188, 196, 218, 223–224, 228
Facilitator model
, 251–252
FAPERGS funding agencies
, 400
Federal Communication Commission (FCC)
, 350
Federation of German Industries
, 382
Feevale Tech Park
, 400–402
Fine-grained conceptualisation
, 92
FINEP funding agencies
, 400
Firm-specific advantages (FSAs)
, 333–334
Firmer grip on installed base
, 279–280
ability of smart services to improving
, 283
facilitators to keeping
, 284–285
obstacles to keeping
, 283–284
Firms
, 19, 126–127
classification in fourth digital revolution
, 19–21
firm-customer communication
, 101
firm-level commercial strategies
, 94
firm-level variables
, 169
foreign firms
, 26
innovation
, 127–128
operating in single industry
, 129
source knowledge
, 129–130
typologies in digital economy
, 330–333
First Industrial Revolution
, 16
First Inventor Country principle
, 303
Five blocks of social medial toolkit
, 227–234
Fixed broadband subscription
, 308, 313
Flat panel display industry (FPD industry)
, 18
Foreign direct investments (FDIs)
, 299, 335
asset-lightness
, 44–48
intangibles and cash
, 48–50
Foreign transplants MNEs
, 28
Foreign Value Added in Exports as a Share of a Country’s Exports
, 305
Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM)
, 167
Fourth digital revolution, classifying firms in
, 19–21
Fourth Generation model
, 394
Fourth Industrial Revolution (IR4)
, 16, 18–19
classifying firms in fourth digital revolution
, 19–21
distance, borders, and LOF
, 29–31
insiders and outsiders
, 25
multinationals as agents of change
, 22–23
political bargaining model
, 27–29
shocks and responses
, 21–22
silent integration to strategic alliance
, 23–25
technological competition
, 25–27
Fractional Counting principle
, 316n11
Friuli Venezia Giulia (FVG)
, 364
Fulfillment centers (FC)
, 342
General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR)
, 351
Generations framework
, 393
Geographic dispersion of earning
, 260, 262, 264
highest Freelancer average earning per project
, 266
lowest Freelancer average earning per project
, 267
STEM freelancers with highest sum of Freelancers earning
, 265–266
Geographic dispersion of users
, 252
Australia-based employers, STEM Freelancers employed by
, 263
Australia-based Freelancers, STEM employers hiring
, 263–264
India-based employers, STEM Freelancers employed by
, 264
India-based Freelancers, STEM employers hiring
, 265
originating STEM Freelancer countries
, 258
STEM employer countries
, 259
UK-based employers, STEM Freelancers employed by
, 261–262
UK-based Freelancers, STEM employers hiring
, 262
US-based employers, STEM Freelancers employed by
, 259–260
US-based Freelancers, STEM employers hiring
, 261
Global financial crisis
, 62, 250
Global modular platform architectures
, 153
Global serviced payment systems
, 103
Global value chain (GVC)
, 60–61, 107, 296, 380
AM, economies of scale, production stages and
, 299–300
AM, skill intensity and
, 300–301
AM and
, 298–301
countries’ relative positioning in
, 307
data, empirical strategy and methodology
, 308–310
data and descriptive statistics on AM patenting and
, 301–306
determinants
, 311–312
econometric findings
, 310–314
empirical evidence
, 306–310
indicators
, 305–306
Global-class technology
, 188
Globalisation
, 132–133
of Chinese platform firms
, 202–205
in information age
, 130
of stakeholder networks
, 109
strategies
, 194
Google
, 19, 92, 100, 188, 200
“Government-created advantages” for internationalization of Chinese MNEs
, 334
Governmental promotion
, 334
Governments
, 154
regulation of securities
, 154–155
taxation issues
, 155
tearing down trade barriers
, 154
Great Fire Wall (GFW)
, 347–348
Gross domestic product (GDP)
, 40, 170, 306, 308, 382
Gross tertiary enrolment ratio
, 309
i-businesses
, 78
firms
, 107
INCOBRA Programme
, 402, 406
Incremental internationalisation theory
, 108
Independent variables
, 168
Individual user behavior
, 70, 75
Individual-level variables
, 169
Industrial revolutions
, 16
Industrial Revolutions
, 16–18
Industrie 4.0
, (see Industry 4.0)
Industry 4.0
, 20, 52–60, 107, 274, 297, 315n3, 358–359, 380
assessments as to ability of smart services
, 279–280, 283–284
case characteristics
, 278
case study approach
, 364–365
cross-case analysis
, 369–371
customer relationship management
, 372–374
description of main features and technologies
, 366–368
and emerging technologies
, 359–360
experiences with leveraging new technological possibilities
, 278–279, 283
goals of investments in
, 369
hidden champions’ specific features
, 288–289
in IB literature
, 360–364
intricacies
, 380–384
methodology
, 276–277
nine pillars of technological advancements
, 361
post-sales services
, 372–374
reconciling cluster attributes with industry 4.0 features
, 384–386
research setting
, 275–276
smart and connected products
, 372–374
impact of smart services on international (service) business
, 281–283, 285–288
strategic industries in regional economy
, 365–369
suggestions for future research questions about
, 375
technologies and international configuration of production
, 371–372
theoretical background
, 274–275
Information
disclosure
, 104
management
, 92
privacy
, 101
processing
, 92
technologies
, 91–92
Information age
, 92–93
accounting
, 104
finance
, 102–104
globalization in
, 130
governance
, 104–105
HR management
, 101–102
IBs
, 107–108
interdisciplinary review of early information age scholarship
, 94–99
interdisciplinary review of recent contributions to
, 99
as knowledge-based paradigm
, 131–133
management
, 105–106
marketing
, 100–101
strategy
, 106–107
uncertainties and strategies for MNCs in information age
, 111
Information and communication technologies (ICT)
, 17, 19, 41, 66, 68, 126, 132–133, 218–219, 330, 381
enabling online collaborations and maturation of intermediate online platforms
, 248
firms
, 20, 44
MNEs
, 42, 46, 330
revolution
, 298
sector
, 330
Information technology (IT)
, 141, 330
devices
, 20
MNEs
, 46–47
software and services firms
, 20
Informational content
, 227
Informational sovereignty
, 328
Initial coin offerings (ICOs)
, 141
startups costs
, 144–145
Initial public offerings (IPOs)
, 147
Innovation
, 125, 127–130, 246
location in
, 126–127
management
, 266–270
Innovation and Entrepreneurial Network of Tecnopuc (INOVAP UC)
, 400
Institutional distance
, 30
Institutional duality
, 109
Institutional escapism
, 334
Intangibles
, 48–50
elements
, 66
market commitments
, 162
Integrated Services Digital Networks (ISDN)
, 67
Intellectual property (IP)
, 49, 279, 284, 346
Interdisciplinary review
of early information age scholarship
, 94–99
of recent contributions to information age
, 99–108
Interdisciplinary themes
, 108
Interests alignment
, 153–154
Intermediary model
, 251–252
Intermediate online platforms
, 248
Internal production processes
, 54
International Association of Science Parks (IASP)
, 393, 402
International business (IB)
, 16, 66, 67, 91, 99, 107–108, 296, 328, 358
analysis by theme
, 74–77
distribution of papers across disciplines
, 120
distribution of publications across levels of analysis
, 121
implications for
, 108–112
industry 4.0 in
, 360–364
information age publications distribution
, 119
information technologies
, 91–92
interdisciplinary review of early information age scholarship
, 94–99
interdisciplinary review of recent contributions to information age
, 99–108
scholarship
, 92–93, 99
strategy research
, 73–74
and strategy results
, 72
studies
, 127
suggestions for future research questions about
, 375
International Code of Conduct for Information Security
, 350
International commercialisation
, 396
International diversification
, 168
International entrepreneurship
, 397
International expansion
, 334
and competition in Southeast Asia
, 344–346
International immersion experiences
, 392
International joint ventures
, 396
International partnership of Tecnosinos and Tecnopuc
, 403
International production
accelerated servicification
, 58–59
digital adoption scenarios and implications
, 57
digital transformation and impact
, 55
distributed production
, 56–57
extended disintermediation
, 59
flexible production
, 59–60
internal production processes
, 54, 56
new theories
, 62–63
potential impact on international production
, 54
International transactions
, 177
International workforce
, 396
Internationalisation
, 52, 71, 76–77, 99, 168, 179, 218–219, 221, 232, 394–395
of companies
, 359
control variables
, 169
dependent variables
, 168
descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations
, 171
impact of e-commerce
, 176
e-commerce usage on SME
, 164–165
of ibusinesses
, 78, 80
independent variables
, 168
knowledge
, 163
limitations and future research
, 178–180
measures
, 168
methodology
, 167
moderating role of perceived barriers
, 174, 175
moderating role of perceived export barriers
, 166–167
patterns
, 108
practical implications
, 177–178
results
, 170, 172
sample and data sources
, 167–168
of SMEs
, 161–163
of SP
, 394–397, 401–404
strategies
, 333–335, 358
theory and hypothesis development
, 161
transactional e-commerce
, 173
Internationalisation Process model (IP model)
, 160–161
Internet
, 17, 66, 160, 164
intensity matrix
, 42–45, 47
neutrality rules
, 350
platforms
, 20, 42, 331, 338
quality
, 284
resources
, 346
retailers
, 46
revolution
, 298
search engines
, 19, 100
social networks
, 19
of things
, 107
Internet governance
, 328, 346
aspects
, 346–347
in comparative perspective
, 349–351
GFW
, 347–348
real-name verification
, 348–349
special management share
, 349
Internet of things (IoT)
, 107, 363
Internet Platform Companies (IPCs)
, 331–332
Internet-based digital economy
, 328
Internet-based exchange
, 179
Internet-based sharing platforms
, 19
Internet-based systems
, 219
Internet-based technology
, 73
Internet-mediated video telephony
, 67
Internet-technology-based businesses
, 66
Intricacies of cluster and industry 4.0
, 380–384
Inventor Country principle
, 303, 316n9
Inventory-heavy operating model
, 56
Inventory-light control mechanisms
, 58
Investment policy challenges
, 60–62
Investors
, 143, 146
access to capital
, 147–148
corporate governance
, 146–147
cryptocurrencies rise
, 146
valuation
, 148–149
volatility
, 149–150
Machine that Changed the World, The
, 17
Machine tool companies
, 276–277
Machine-based technologies in factories
, 132
Macro and market focus
, 71, 75
Majority Counting principle
, 316n11
Manufacturing
, (see also Additive manufacturing (AM))
companies
, 358, 360–361, 363, 365, 373
firms
, 19, 382
renaissance
, 360
sector
, 381
technology
, 110
Market(ing)
, 100–101
capitalisation
, 48–49
commitment
, 161–163
commitment and knowledge of SMEs
, 161–163
knowledge
, 161, 163
market-based channels
, 247
strategy
, 69, 74
“Medium of exchange”
, 142
MERCOSUL Free Trade Area agreement
, 399
Minimum efficient technical scale (METS)
, 299
Ministry of Foreign Affairs
, 349
Ministry of Industry and Information Technology (MIIT)
, 348
Modern career platforms
, 102
Modern information age technologies
, 107
Mount St. Vincent University (MSVU)
, 21
Multinational business enterprise (MBE)
, 395, 405
Multinational enterprises (MNEs)
, 16, 22, 77, 124, 221, 296, 328
business models
, 46
China
, 334
foreign transplants
, 28
ICT
, 42, 46
incumbents
, 28
IT
, 46–47
non-developed country
, 334
non-digital
, 47
purely digital
, 46
tech
, 20, 40–41, 49
telecom
, 47
Multinationals as agents of change
, 22–23
Multiple foreign Internet corporations
, 347–348
Multiple-case study approach
, 358–359
Multiple-case study research strategy
, 397
Municipal Council of Science and Technology (COMCET)
, 399
Sanook, social media firm
, 196–197
Science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM)
, 247
Science parks (SPs)
, 392
business areas comparison
, 401
case studies
, 400–401
data analysis and results
, 398–405
discussion and propositions
, 403–405
international partnership of Tecnosinos and Tecnopuc
, 403
internationalisation
, 394–397, 401–404
literature review
, 393–397
method
, 397–398
models
, 393–394
Rio Grande do Sul and Porto Alegre regional innovation system
, 398–399
social network theory
, 394–395
‘Science push’ approach
, 393
Scientific and Technological Park of PUCRS
, 392, 400
Second Generation of SP
, 393
Second Industrial Revolution (IR2)
, 16
Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)
, 154–155
Securities regulation
, 154–155
Self-preservers
, 226, 235
Seller–buyer relationship
, 218
Service business development, value generation from
, 287
Service intensive MNCs
, 101
Servicification, accelerated
, 58–59
Share of Re-Exported Inputs on Total Imported Inputs
, 305, 310
Sharing economy
, 92
platforms
, 331
Shocks and responses
, 21–22
Shortcut, Portuguese B2B company
, 223
Shortcut’s strategic social media problem
, 223–224
Shortcut’s strategy development
, 224–227
analysis of competitors’ online presence
, 226
analytic metrics
, 227
content
, 226–227
five blocks of social media strategy
, 225
objectives
, 225–226
segmentation
, 226
Skill shortage in United States
, 249
Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs)
, 61, 101, 160, 208, 219, 223–224, 280
internationalisation
, 164–165
Smart and connected products
, 363, 372–374
“Smart factory” model
, 370
Smart services
, 274
assessments as to ability of
, 279–280, 283
experiences with leveraging new technological possibilities
, 278–279, 283
impact on firm’s product/market possibilities
, 288
impact on international (service) business
, 281–283, 285–288
Smartphones
, 81
payment systems
, 206
Social media
, 76, 106, 222
applications
, 206
for B2B companies–shortcut case study
, 223
five blocks of social medial toolkit
, 227–234
platforms
, 196–197
shortcut’s strategic social media problem
, 223–224
toolkit for B2B companies
, 224–227
Social medial toolkit, five blocks of
, 227–234
Social networks
, 218
Facebook
, 19–20, 66, 101, 188, 196, 218, 223–224, 228
Instagram
, 19, 188, 196
LinkedIn
, 19–20, 102, 223–224, 228
theory
, 394–395
Twitter
, 19–20, 66, 76, 221
WeChat
, 19, 196–197, 207, 348
WhatsApp
, 19, 188, 194, 196, 207
Social technologies
, 66–68, 72, 76–77
adoption
, 70
Social-entertainers
, 226, 235
Soft-Landing programmes
, 392
Southeast Asia, International expansion and competition in
, 344–346
Special management share
, 349
Specialised consumer platforms
, 100
Specialised e-hiring providers
, 102
Specialised peer-to-peer platforms
, 101
Stakeholders
, 105, 144, 235
activism
, 103
cooperation among stakeholders
, 145
expectations
, 109
ICO startups costs
, 144–145
management
, 106
networks globalisation
, 109
solving temporal issues
, 145–146
startup teams and founders
, 144
Stanford Research Park in California
, 392–393
Startup teams and founders
, 144
State-owned enterprises (SOEs)
, 334
Strategic alliance, silent integration to
, 23–25
Strategic configuration of value chain
, 110
Strategic industries in regional economy
, 365–369
Strategic management process
, 66–68
Strategy scholars
, 81, 99
Strix heating-control elements
, 59
Suppliers
, 151
access to customers
, 152
limits to business model globalization
, 151–152
Supply chain
, 71–72
end-to-end
, 53, 56