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As wheeled mobile robots find increasing use in outdoor applications, it becomes more important to reduce energy consumption to perform more missions efficiently with limit energy supply. The purpose of this paper is to survey the current state-of-the-art on energy-efficient motion planning (EEMP) for wheeled mobile robots.

The use of wheeled mobile robots has been increased to replace humans in performing risky missions in outdoor applications, and the requirement of motion planning with efficient energy consumption is necessary. This study analyses a lot of motion planning technologies in terms of energy efficiency for wheeled mobile robots from 2000 to present. The dynamic constraints play a key role in EEMP problem, which derive the power model related to energy consumption. The surveyed approaches differ in the used steering mechanisms for wheeled mobile robots, in assumptions on the structure of the environment and in computational requirements. The comparison among different EEMP methods is proposed in optimal, computation time and completeness.

According to lots of literature in EEMP problem, the research results can be roughly divided into online real-time optimization and offline optimization. The energy consumption is considered during online real-time optimization, which is computationally expensive and time-consuming. The energy consumption model is used to evaluate the candidate motions offline and to obtain the optimal energy consumption motion. Sometimes, this optimization method may cause local minimal problem and even fail to track. Therefore, integrating the energy consumption model into the online motion planning will be the research trend of EEMP problem, and more comprehensive approach to EEMP problem is presented.

EEMP is closely related to robot’s dynamic constraints. This paper mainly surveyed in EEMP problem for differential steered, Ackermann-steered, skid-steered and omni-directional steered robots. Other steering mechanisms of wheeled mobile robots are not discussed in this study.

The survey of performance of various EEMP serves as a reference for robots with different steering mechanisms using in special scenarios.

This paper analyses a lot of motion planning technologies in terms of energy efficiency for wheeled mobile robots from 2000 to present.

Visually impaired people have long been living in the dark. They cannot realize the colorful world with their vision, so they rely on hearing, touch and smell to feel the space they live in. Lacking image information, they face challenges in the external environment and barrier spaces. They face danger that is hundreds of times higher than that faced by normal people. Especially during outdoor activities, they can only explore the surrounding environment aided by their hearing and crutches and then based on a vague impression speculate where they are located. To let the blind confidently take each step, this paper proposes sticking the electronic tag of the radio-frequency identification (RFID) system on the back of guide bricks.

Thus, the RFID reader, ultrasonic sensor and voice chip on a wheeled mobile robot link the front end to the crutch. Once the blind person nears a guide brick, the RFID will read the message on the tag through the voice broadcast system, and a voice will inform the visually impaired person of the direction to walk and information of the surrounding environment. In addition, the CMOS image sensor set up in the wheeled mobile robot is used to detect the black marking on the guide brick and to guide the blind to walk forward or turn around between the two markings. Finally, the lithium battery charging control unit was installed on the wheeled mobile robot. The ATtiny25 microcontroller conducts the battery charge and discharge control and monitoring of the current battery capacity.

The development of this system will let visually impaired people acquire environmental information, road guidance function and nearby traffic information.

Through rich spatial environment messages, the blind can have the confidence and courage to go outside.

Based on laser-range-finder (LRF) sensing, the control design of location and orientation stabilization for the mobile robot is investigated. However, the practical limitation of the LRF sensing is usually ignored in the control design, which leads to incorrect localization and unexpected control results. The purpose of this study is to design the fuzzy controller subject to the practical limitation on the LRF-based localization for a differentially driven wheeled mobile robot.

First, the Takagi–Sugeno (T-S) fuzzy model is derived from the polar kinematic model of a differentially driven mobile robot. Then, the fuzzy controller is designed to the derived T-S fuzzy kinematic model in accordance with the Lyapunov stabilization theorem. The derived Lyapunov stabilization conditions for the fuzzy control design are expressed as the linear matrix inequality (LMI) form and effectively solved by LMI tools. The practical limitation on the LRF-based localization is also expressed as the LMI form and simultaneously solved with the control design.

The location and posture stabilization experiments are carried out on a mobile robot with LRF-based localization to prove the effectiveness of the proposed T-S fuzzy model-based control design. Furthermore, the ground truth experiment evaluates the accuracy of LRF-based localization.

The contribution of this study is to develop the fuzzy control law for a differentially driven wheeled mobile robot under the practical limitation on LRF-based localization. The proposed control design can be applied to other robots with practical limitations on the sensors.

The purpose of this paper is to provide a comprehensive and unified presentation of recent developments in skid-steer wheeled mobile robots (SSWMR) with regard to its control, guidance and navigation for the researchers who wish to study in this field.

Most of the contemporary unmanned ground robot’s locomotion is based upon the wheels. For wheeled mobile robots (WMRs), one of the prominent and widely used driving schemes is skid steering. Because of mechanical simplicity and high maneuverability particularly in outdoor applications, SSWMR has an advantage over its counterparts. Different prospects of SSWMR have been discussed including its design, application, locomotion, control, navigation and guidance. The challenges pertaining to SSWMR have been pointed out in detail, which will seek the attention of the readers, who are interested to explore this area.

Relying on the recent literature on SSWMR, research gaps are identified that should be analyzed for the development of autonomous skid-steer wheeled robots.

An attempt to present a comprehensive review of recent advancements in the field of WMRs and providing references to the most intriguing studies.

Most of the conventional humanoid modeling approaches are not successful in coupling different branches of the tree-type humanoid robot. In this paper, a tree-type upper body humanoid robot with mobile base is modeled. The main purpose of this work is to model a non holonomic mobile platform and to develop a hybrid algorithm for avoiding dynamic obstacles. Decoupled Natural Orthogonal Complement methodology effectively combines different branches of the humanoid body during dynamic analysis. Collision avoidance also plays an important role along with modeling methods for successful operation of the upper body wheeled humanoid robot during real-time operations. The majority of path planning algorithms is facing problems in avoiding dynamic obstacles during real-time operations. Hence, a multi-fusion approach using a hybrid algorithm for avoiding dynamic obstacles in real time is introduced.

The kinematic and dynamic modeling of a humanoid robot with mobile platform is done using screw theory approach and Newton–Euler formulations, respectively. Dynamic obstacle avoidance using a novel hybrid algorithm is carried out and implemented in real time. D star lite and a geometric-based hybrid algorithms are combined to generate the optimized path for avoiding the dynamic obstacles. A weighting factor is added to the D star lite variant to optimize the basic version of D star lite algorithm. Lazy probabilistic road map (PRM) technique is used for creating nodes in configuration space. The dynamic obstacle avoidance is experimentally validated to achieve the optimum path.

The path obtained using the hybrid algorithm for avoiding dynamic obstacles is optimum. Path length, computational time, number of expanded nodes are analysed for determining the optimality of the path. The weighting function introduced along with the D star lite algorithm decreases computational time by decreasing the number of expanding nodes during path generation. Lazy evaluation technique followed in Lazy PRM algorithm reduces computational time for generating nodes and local paths.

Modeling of a tree-type humanoid robot along with the mobile platform is combinedly developed for the determination of the kinematic and dynamic equations. This paper also aims to develop a novel hybrid algorithm for avoiding collision with dynamic obstacles with minimal computational effort in real-time operations.

This paper focuses on the application of a robotic technique for modeling a three-wheeled mobile robot (WMR), considering it as a multibody polyarticulated system. Then the dynamic behavior of the developed model is verified using a physical model obtained by Simscape Multibody.

Firstly, a geometric model is developed using the modified Denavit–Hartenberg method. Then the dynamic model is derived using the algorithm of Newton–Euler. The developed model is performed for a three-wheeled differentially driven robot, which incorporates the slippage of wheels by including the Kiencke tire model to take into account the interaction of wheels with the ground. For the physical model, the mobile robot is designed using Solidworks. Then it is exported to Matlab using Simscape Multibody. The control of the WMR for both models is realized using Matlab/Simulink and aims to ensure efficient tracking of the desired trajectory.

Simulation results show a good similarity between the two models and verify both longitudinal and lateral behaviors of the WMR. This demonstrates the effectiveness of the developed model using the robotic approach and proves that it is sufficiently precise for the design of control schemes.

The motivation to adopt this robotic approach compared to conventional methods is the fact that it makes it possible to obtain models with a reduced number of operations. Furthermore, it allows the facility of implementation by numerical or symbolical programming. This work serves as a reference link for extending this methodology to other types of mobile robots.

The purpose of this paper is to describe the development of a robot for surveillance able to move in structured and unstructured environments and able to overcome obstacles with high energetic efficiency.

The proposed Epi.q‐TG hybrid robot combines wheeled and legged locomotion. It is equipped with four three‐wheeled locomotion units; traction is generated by the two forecarriage units, while the two rear ones have same geometry but are idle. Each front unit is actuated by a single motor with the interposition of an epicyclical gearing, accurately designed in order to suitably switch between wheeled and legged motion. The robot changes locomotion mode from rolling on wheels (advancing mode) to stepping on legs (automatic climbing mode) according to local friction and dynamic conditions.

The experimental results confirm the design objectives. In advancing mode, the robot behaves like a four‐wheeled vehicle, with high speed and energetic efficiency. In automatic climbing mode, the robot can walk on uneven and soft terrains and overcome steps with remarkable height with respect to its dimensions (up to 84 per cent of the locomotion unit height).

Besides surveillance, Epi.q‐TG can be successfully used in many tasks in which it is useful to combine the advantages of wheeled and legged locomotion, e.g. unmanned inspection of nuclear and chemical sites, minesweeping, and intervention in disaster zones.

The core of the project is the epicyclical mechanism of the locomotion unit, which switches between advancing mode and automatic climbing mode without control action. This solution limits the control and actuation complexity and consequently the robot cost, widening the range of possible applications.

Mobile robots may perform very critical tasks under difficult operating conditions. Faults encountered during their tasks may cause the task to be interrupted or failed completely. In the active fault tolerant control methods, it is very important not only to detect the faults that occur in the robot, but also to isolate these faults to develop a fault recovery strategy that is suitable for that specific type of fault. This study aims to develop a model-based fault detection and isolation method for wheel slippage and motor performance degradation that may occur in wheeled mobile robots.

In the proposed method, wheel speeds can be estimated via the dynamic model of the mobile robot, which includes a friction model between the wheel and the ground. Four residual signals are obtained from the differences between the estimated states and the measured states of the mobile robot. Mobile robot’s faults are detected by using these signals. Also, two different residual signals are generated from the calculation of the traction forces with two different procedures. These six residual signals are then used to isolate possible wheel slippage and performance degradation in a motor.

The proposed method for diagnosing wheel slip and performance degradation in motors are tested by moving the robot in various directions. According to the data obtained from the test results, a logic table is created to isolate these two faults from each other. Thanks to the created logic table, slippage in any wheel and performance degradation in any motor can be detected and isolated.

Two different recovery strategies are needed to recover temporary wheel slippage and permanent motor faults. Therefore, it is important to isolate these two faults that create similar symptoms in robot’s general movement. Thanks to the method proposed in this study, it is not only possible to isolate the slipping wheel with respect to the non-slipping wheels or to isolate the faulty motor from the non-faulty ones, but also to isolate these two different fault types from each other.

The uncertainty and nonlinearity are the challenging problems for the control of a nonholonomic wheeled mobile robot. To overcome these problems, many valuable methods have been proposed by using two control loops namely the kinematic control and the torque control so far. In majority of the proposed approaches the dynamics of actuators is omitted for simplicity in the control design. This drawback degrades the control performance in high-velocity tracking control. On the other hand, to guarantee stability and overcome uncertainties, the control methods become computationally extensive and may be impractical due to using all states. The purpose of this paper is to design a simple controller with guaranteed stability for overcoming the nonlinearity, uncertainty and actuator dynamics.

The control design includes two control loops, the kinematic control loop and the novel dynamic control loop. The dynamic control loop uses the voltage control strategy instead of the torque control strategy. Feedbacks of the robot orientation, robot position, robot linear and angular velocity, and motor currents are given to the control system.

To improve the precision, the dynamics of motors are taken into account. The most important advantages of the proposed control law is that it is free from the robot dynamics, thereby the controller is simple, fast response and robust with ignorable tracking error. The control approach is verified by stability analysis. Simulation results show the effectiveness of the proposed control applied on an uncertain nonholonomic wheeled mobile robot driven by permanent magnet dc motors. A comparison with an adaptive sliding-mode dynamic control approach confirms the superiority of the proposed approach in terms of precision, simplicity of design and computations.

The originality of the paper is to present a new control design for an uncertain nonholonomic wheeled mobile robot by using voltage control strategy in replace of the torque control strategy. In addition, a novel state-space model of electrically driven nonholonomic wheeled mobile robot in the workspace is presented.

The purpose of this paper is to propose a suitable motion planning for omni‐directional mobile robots (OMRs) by taking into account the motion characteristics.

Based on the kinematic and dynamic constraints, the maximum velocity, motion stability and energy consumption of the OMR moving in different directions are analysed, and the anisotropy of the OMR is presented. In order to obtain the optimal motion, the path that the robot can take in order to avoid the obstacle safely and reach the goal in a shorter path is deduced. According to the new concept of anisotropic function, the motion direction derived from traditional artificial potential field (tAPF) is regulated.

A combination of the anisotropic function and tAPF method produces high‐speed, highly stable and efficient motion when compared to the tAPF. Simulations and experiments have proven the validity and effectiveness of this method.

The practical factors, such as the effect of wear on the omni‐directional wheels, are not considered. Typical problems of APF, e.g. local minima, are not addressed here. In our future research, we will deal with these issues.

The proposed motion planning is applicable for any kind of OMRs, both three‐ and four‐wheeled OMRs, which can fully exhibit the advantages of OMRs.

The new concept of an anisotropic function is proposed to indicate the quality of motion in different directions. Different motion effects can be obtained in the same direction with different weights denoted by the anisotropic function, i.e. different trade‐offs can be achieved by varying the weights.