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Several criteria were used for this study to determine the relevance of the literature for the purpose of the review. First, all articles were required to be published in peer-reviewed journals. Next, all articles were required to be primary sources. Reviews of the literature found throughout the search procedures were used as supporting information, as well as the basis for this review. Only quantitative studies were included in this review; opinion papers and qualitative studies were not incorporated into the results. The participants in each study had to be identified as having a learning disability. Studies that included regular education students as a control or comparative group were included as long as the treatment group included students with learning disabilities. The students with learning disabilities were required to possess verbal deficits. Those studies that examined students with non-verbal learning disabilities were excluded from this review. All studies were required to be in English and conducted in the United States.

Taking a set of studies about business action as the empirical starting-point, this paper looks at the various ways in which action is represented. The overall research question can be stated as follows: how is business action reconstructed in our narratives? The texts analyzed are collected from research on exchange relationships in the field of marketing. To analyze how these texts depict business action, four narrative constructions are focused: space, time, actors, and plots. The categorization and analysis are summarized and followed by a set of concluding implications and suggestions for narrative practice aiming to reconstruct business action in the making.

Toward the end of the 20th century, some work within political theory, of a kind that primarily foregrounds ethical considerations and another kind within political geography that links such ethical concerns to explication in terms of social space, territoriality and scale, has resuscitated the notion of contingent universality as an alternative to the either/or embrace or rejection of universality (and consequent denigration/celebration of particularity). As witnessed by the so-called spatial turn in many of the social and cultural sciences, this very circumstance, at least in the English-speaking world, has been one wellspring of current interdisciplinary interest in various geographical concepts and traditions. For political geographers, the idea of contingent universality arguably invites a fecund perspective from which to reflect upon a range of substantive and epistemological outcomes, which this essay will argue, are densely bound up in what, in short hand, is labeled globalization.

Most spatial econometrics work focuses on spatial dependence in the regressand or disturbances. However, Lesage and Pace (2009) as well as Pace and LeSage2009 showed that the bias in β from applying OLS to a regressand generated from a spatial autoregressive process was exacerbated by spatial dependence in the regressor. Also, the marginal likelihood function or restricted maximum likelihood (REML) function includes a determinant term involving the regressors. Therefore, high dependence in the regressor may affect the likelihood through this term. In addition, Bowden and Turkington (1984) showed that regressor temporal autocorrelation had a non-monotonic effect on instrumental variable estimators.

We provide empirical evidence that many common economic variables used as regressors (e.g., income, race, and employment) exhibit high levels of spatial dependence. Based on this observation, we conduct a Monte Carlo study of maximum likelihood (ML), REML and two instrumental variable specifications for spatial autoregressive (SAR) and spatial Durbin models (SDM) in the presence of spatially correlated regressors.

Findings indicate that as spatial dependence in the regressor rises, REML outperforms ML and that performance of the instrumental variable methods suffer. The combination of correlated regressors and the SDM specification provides a challenging environment for instrumental variable techniques.

We also examine estimates of marginal effects and show that these behave better than estimates of the underlying model parameters used to construct marginal effects estimates. Suggestions for improving design of Monte Carlo experiments are provided.

The scope of this chapter is place and its identity in view of global changes. The ground for undertaking the topic is the belief that by conscious activity undertaken to protect the value of places we are capable of facing modern changes involving the homogenization of space.

Today we are witnessing a rapid destruction of the existing urban forms, leading to fading legibility of the city structure, destroying the state of subtle balance between space and place, and shaking the sense of identity of city inhabitants. The values of identity, legibility, and a traditional network of meanings and symbols are fading away. The space of flows supplants the space of places, evoking essential changes in the functional structure of cities, almost all over the world.

Is it possible to preserve the tradition and identity of place under globalization conditions? It is a challenge for architects, urban planners, decision-makers, investors, and inhabitants. One potential role of the urban planner is perceived as active participation in creating new qualitative social attitudes, as well as undertaking mediating, promotional, and educational activities. Tools that could be helpful in shaping a new model of place involve comprehensive discussion and education in the field of the value of space, shaping social awareness and grounds for social development. It may be concluded with some caution that such comprehensive discussion will contribute to raising the level of knowledge about the world and the sense of the value of space.

A Bayesian probit model with individual effects that exhibit spatial dependencies is set forth. Since probit models are often used to explain variation in individual choices, these models may well exhibit spatial interaction effects due to the varying spatial location of the decision makers. That is, individuals located at similar points in space may tend to exhibit similar choice behavior. The model proposed here allows for a parameter vector of spatial interaction effects that takes the form of a spatial autoregression. This model extends the class of Bayesian spatial logit/probit models presented in LeSage (2000) and relies on a hierachical construct that we estimate via Markov Chain Monte Carlo methods. We illustrate the model by applying it to the 1996 presidential election results for 3,110 U.S. counties.

This chapter focuses on the conflicts that have accompanied the development of Germany’s largest airport at Frankfurt/Main and examines how these conflicts are embedded in regional governance and airport planning. In the German context, the governance discourse is understood as a multi-faceted framework of actors, institutions and legislation that structures the actions of involved people.

The conflicts within this framework are structured by two aspects: the spatiality of the contested object, which results in tactical descriptions of the space involved, and an understanding of airports as parts of large technological systems which strongly influences the discourse of airport expansion. As spatial conflicts regarding large infrastructures develop over a long period of time, the chapter charts the historical evolution of the expansion conflict from the 1980s until today. It analyses the governance structure and the actor’s constellations throughout time to shed light on the use of narratives and the stability and change of pro and contra coalitions. It concludes with a critical reflection on the role of airports in the German planning system and the problems of governance in the multilevel, multi-actor environment of airports.

The chapter highlights the necessity of examining the environmental impact of airports at different scales, from neighbouring cities to the large labour market stretching up to 100km from the airport.

The growing importance of Krakow as the tourist destination in Eastern Europe has inspired changes in its hospitality industry as early as in the mid-nineteenth century. This chapter addresses the following questions – how has the hospitality industry developed during this period? Where did it concentrate? How did the hospitality offer expanded, and was the nature of the competition between owners? Due to the limited availability of historical statistical information on the service industry, the data for this study was derived from guide books, diaries, calendars, and newspapers (“Chronicle of Cracow”) throughout 1848–1939. The authors have examined about 30,500 volumes from which a selection of relevant information and press advertisements was made. Through the examination of historical press announcements for more than 90 years, the authors were able to reproduce the direct location of the hospitality industry objects, their changes of location, the identity of owners, the profile of provided services, and the economic and spatial transformations of the hospitality industry in Krakow.