Index

Airline Economics in Asia

ISBN: 978-1-78754-566-3, eISBN: 978-1-78754-565-6

ISSN: 2212-1609

Publication date: 14 December 2018

This content is currently only available as a PDF

Citation

(2018), "Index", Airline Economics in Asia (Advances in Airline Economics, Vol. 7), Emerald Publishing Limited, Leeds, pp. 287-298. https://doi.org/10.1108/S2212-160920180000007015

Publisher

:

Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2019 Emerald Publishing Limited


INDEX

Affordable air transport service
, 1

Air Asia
, 209

Air Chathams
, 246

Air China
, 80, 86–88, 108

Air Liberalization Index (ALI)
, 66–67, 152

for Kazakhstan
, 70, 72

for Tajikistan
, 72

for Turkmenistan
, 72

for Uzbekistan
, 71

Air New Zealand
, 246, 249–250

Air service availability

Australia and Asia
, 152–154

causality in aviation and tourism demand
, 151–152

data
, 154–155

dynamic system generalized method of moments estimator
, 156–158

economics of tourism demand and air transportation
, 147–151

endogeneity problem
, 155–156

implications
, 163–164

method
, 155

study context and data
, 152

testing model
, 158–159

total inbound visitors
, 159–162

travel purpose
, 162–163

various forms of endogeneity in panel data
, 156

Air services agreements (ASAs)
, 41, 62, 124–125

Air traffic

markets
, 222

volume
, 268

Air Transport World (ATW)
, 201

Air transport(ation)
, 80, 124, 147–151, 196, 222

Codeshare and Airline Alliance
, 130–133

deregulation
, 124–128

development
, 260

hub-and-spoke system
, 133

low-cost carriers
, 128–130

network
, 246, 252

impact of Open Skies
, 133–134

regulation
, 124–128

service
, 1, 3, 62

Sri Lanka Tourist Arrivals
, 132

and tourism demand
, 149–151

AIRail service
, 117

Airbus A320 aircraft
, 260

AIRDO (see Hokkaido International Airlines)

Airfares
, 156

deregulation of
, 83–84

Airline consolidations in China
, 85

into “Big Three” Airline Groups
, 85–86

elimination of regional airlines
, 85

large-scale airline mergers
, 86–87

Airline Deregulation Act (ADA)
, 126

Airline mergers, large-scale
, 86–87

Airline-HSR integration
, 104–105, 115

co-location of airport and HSR station
, 117–118

cooperation between airlines/airports and HSR
, 116–117

service integration
, 105

Airline-in-airline strategy
, 2

Airline(s) (see also Chinese Airline Industry; Singapore Airlines)
, 1–2, 7, 271

alliance
, 130–133

competition measurement in China’s domestic market
, 87–90

equilibrium effort level
, 281

groups
, 80

measuring productivity change of
, 203–205

network scheduling process
, 151

operations impact on airport planning and development
, 259–260

performance
, 198–199

technical efficiency and productivity results
, 207–215

transport service
, 4

Airline–rail integration
, 117

Airlines-within-airlines (AWA)
, 19–20

Airport Authority of Hong Kong
, 85

Airport–airline relationship
, 268, 271

Airports (see also New Zealand’s airports)
, 7, 271

alliance
, 272

business contribution of airport environments
, 252–253

congestion and pricing
, 272

connectivity
, 249

efficiency
, 222

environments
, 253

facilitated contribution of airport network
, 253

in imports and exports
, 254–255

infrastructure investments
, 269

localization
, 85

network
, 251–252

privatization and regulation
, 272

role in economic development
, 251

runway length
, 228

in tourism growth
, 255–259

Airports Council International (ACI)
, 285

All Nippon Airways (ANA)
, 11

Amami O-shima Island
, 17

American Airlines
, 130

Asia-Pacific region
, 5–6, 80, 146

aviation overview for
, 268–270

Asian countries
, 104

Asian inbound tourism
, 5, 147

tourism in
, 152–154

Asian tourism markets
, 2, 117, 146

Asiana Airlines
, 250

Association of Asia-Pacific Airlines (AAPA)
, 1

Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)
, 6, 128, 221–222

airports
, 232

ASEAN-China Air Transport Agreement
, 134

cargo efficiency of
, 240–241

movement efficiency of
, 242–243

passenger efficiency of
, 238–239

Auckland International Airport
, 246, 249–250, 252, 255–256

Australia

International Visitor Survey
, 155

tourism in
, 152–154

Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (ACCC)
, 131

Autocorrelation
, 206

Available seat kilometer (ASK)
, 108, 179

Aviation
, 62

capacity
, 146

causality in
, 151–152

overview for Asia Pacific Region
, 268–270

sector players
, 270

service
, 62

Beijing International Airport
, 85, 88

Beijing–Guangzhou route
, 93

Beijing–Shanghai HSR
, 95

Beijing–Shanghai route
, 93

Benchmarking
, 207

Bermuda Agreement
, 125

“Beyond right” freedom
, 134

“Big Four” Airlines
, 98

“Big Three” airline groups
, 80, 85–86

“Big Three” carriers
, 84, 89–90

Blenheim and Dunedin airports
, 251

Boeing 737–300 aircraft
, 260

Boeing 737–800 aircraft
, 260

Boeing 777 aircraft
, 48

Boeing 777–300ER aircraft
, 47

BP Air
, 130

Braniff Airlines
, 129

Business travelers
, 162–163

Cargos
, 228

Causality in aviation and tourism demand
, 151–152

Centrair (see Chubu Centrair International Airport)

Central Asia

Central Asian international routes
, 69–70

international aviation market in Central Asia
, 64–68

market analysis for
, 68–74

Ceteris paribus effect
, 150

Charnes, Cooper, and Rhodes model (CCR model)
, 202, 224

Chengdu airports
, 106

Chicago Convention (see Convention on International Civil Aviation (1944))

China

airline consolidations and competition in domestic market
, 85–90

airline deregulation
, 87

Civil Aviation under Central Planning
, 82

deregulation of airfare
, 83–84

LCC sector
, 107

transition from central planning to market orientation
, 82–83

China Airlines
, 250

China Civil Aviation
, 171

China Eastern Airlines
, 80, 84–85, 108

China Railway Corporation (CRC)
, 93

China Railways
, 93

China Southern Airlines
, 250

China Southern Airlines
, 80, 85, 108

China Statistical Yearbook
, 171–172, 176

Chinese air carriers
, 4

Chinese Airline Industry
, 80

CAAC
, 171–172

data and methodology
, 171

effects of HSR on
, 90–97

empirical results
, 178

Expectation Model
, 179–182

fixed effect Tobit analysis
, 182–185

history and deregulation
, 82–85

means and standard deviations of relevant variables
, 179

on-time performance
, 170–171, 173–178

random effect estimation results
, 185–192

service quality
, 169–170

Chinese airports
, 85

Chinese city-pair air passenger flows, determinants of
, 94

Chinese FSCs
, 109

Chinese HSR network
, 81

Christchurch airport
, 249–250, 253, 255

Chubu Centrair International Airport
, 30

Civil Aeronautics Act
, 12

Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB)
, 125

Civil Air Navigation Services Organization (CANSO)
, 285

Civil Aviation Administration of China (CAAC)
, 4, 80, 82–83, 109, 171–172

Civil Aviation Authority of New Zealand
, 253

Civil Aviation Authority of Thailand
, 130

Co-location of Airport and HSR station
, 117–118

Codeshare
, 130–133

Commercial Air Lines
, 135

Commercialization
, 246

Competition and regulatory change
, 2–3

Competitive aviation sector in Asia
, 6

Conduct parameter
, 88

Contractual payment structures
, 274

Convention on International Civil Aviation (1944)
, 124, 134

Corporate actions
, 176–177

Counterfactual analysis
, 69

Cournot model
, 88

Cournot-type noncooperative games framework
, 277

Customer complaints
, 172, 177, 185

Customer satisfaction
, 169–170

Data envelopment analysis (DEA)
, 200, 202, 207, 222–224

Decision-making units (DMUs)
, 200, 207, 223, 226

Delta Airlines
, 133

Dependent variable
, 148, 155

Deregulation (see also Regulation)

in air transport
, 124–128

of airfare
, 83–84

and Open Skies
, 126–128

passenger traffic and growth rate
, 127

of route entry and exit
, 84

Deregulation Act
, 129

Destination composite prices
, 149–150

Difference-in-differences approach (DID approach)
, 112, 116

Disaggregate output efficiency
, 224

Discrete events
, 148

Domestic air transport
, 9, 11, 249

Domestic routes
, 17

Dominant carrier
, 178

Dubai-based airline
, 34

Durbin–Wu–Hausman test (DWH test)
, 158–159

Dynamic endogeneity
, 156

Dynamic panel GMM models
, 155

Dynamic system GMM moments estimator
, 156–159

Econometric principles
, 146

Economic crisis
, 215

Economic development, airports role in
, 251–259

Economic indicators for countries in Central Asia
, 64

Economic theory
, 149

Economics of tourism demand and air transportation (see also Low-cost carriers (LCCs))
, 147

air transport and tourism demand
, 149–151

factors influencing tourism demand
, 149

international tourism demand
, 147–148

Eighth freedom of air
, 138

Emirates
, 133, 250

growth
, 34–35

Empirical analysis
, 5, 91

Empirical evidence on causality
, 151–152

Endogeneity
, 150–151

in panel data
, 156

problem
, 155–156

Endogenous regressors
, 156

Endogenous-weight TFP method
, 223

“Entry barrier” parameter
, 68–69

European markets
, 91

European Union (EU)

commission
, 128

SAM
, 63

single air transport market
, 125

Europe–Australasian corridor
, 43

Exchange rates
, 154

Exports, airports role in
, 254–255

Far Eastern Air Transport
, 135

Fiji Airways
, 250

Firms
, 198

Fixed effect

model
, 111

panel regressions
, 155, 162

Tobit analysis
, 182–185

Flag carrier
, 125, 126

FlyDubai airline
, 36

Frankfurt–Kuala Lumpur–Frankfurt market
, 51–52

Freedoms of air
, 134, 137–138

Fuel cost
, 201

Fujian Airlines
, 85

Fukuoka airport
, 9, 11

Fukuoka city
, 22

Full-service carriers (FSCs)
, 2–3, 12, 18–19, 104

Full-service Turkish Airlines
, 36

Game-theoretic framework
, 197, 271, 276, 277

Gaming behavior
, 270

Generalized method of moments approach (GMM approach)
, 5, 147, 201, 205–206

Generalized travel costs
, 112

“Genuine” LCCs
, 2–3, 11

Geography

proximity
, 160

of tourist flows
, 153

Global air mobility
, 146

Global airline transport service sector
, 2

Global aviation policy
, 2

Global Financial Crisis (GFC)
, 149, 154

Global sourcing
, 197

Government agency
, 131

Government-owned airports
, 269

Gravity model approach
, 94

Gross domestic product (GDP)
, 43–45, 252

Guangzhou Baiyun International Airport
, 88

Gulf Air
, 34

Hainan Airlines
, 84, 85

“Half-fare sale” strategy
, 129

Hamilton airport
, 251

Haneda (see Tokyo International Airport)

Hangzhou International Airport
, 85

Hansen test
, 215

Hansen-J test statistic
, 206–207

Hartsfield–Jackson International Airport
, 133

“Headline-grabbing” service
, 46–47

Herfindahl–Hirschman Index (HHI)
, 64, 76, 87, 152

Heteroskedasticity
, 156

High-speed rail (HSR)
, 11, 81, 104

airline–HSR integration
, 115–118

in China
, 4

competition between LCCs and
, 20–22

development in China
, 92–94

effects on Chinese airline industry
, 90–97

estimated HSR speed effect
, 115

impact on Chinese Airline Industry
, 94–97

and LCC interaction
, 106–110

network in China
, 107

networks
, 2

operating statistics of China’s HSR
, 106

rear-ending accident
, 105

routes with HSR competition
, 114

speed effect on airlines
, 112–115

speed impact on airlines
, 110–115

travel time
, 81

unit operating cost comparison
, 110

Hokkaido International Airlines
, 11–12

Holiday travelers
, 163

Hong Kong–Bangkok market
, 5, 134

airline operating services between
, 136

one-way airfare
, 137

“7–23 HSR rear-ending accident”
, 111, 113–114

Hub-and-spoke system
, 133, 251

Ideal departure/arrival time
, 131

Imports, airports role in
, 254–255

Inbound visitors boost in Japan
, 25–29

Incheon International Airport
, 106

Income
, 154

and destination prices
, 146

elasticity
, 164

Industry High Level Group (IHLG)
, 268

Industry performance
, 6

Intercept
, 280, 282

Interdependence of airports and airlines
, 7

International air freight movement
, 254

International Air Navigation Conference
, 124

International Air Transport Association (IATA)
, 80, 125, 201, 285

International airlines
, 249

International airports
, 6, 232–234, 249, 260

International aviation market
, 62

in Central Asia
, 64–68

International aviation regulatory issues
, 124

International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO)
, 124, 285

International Commission for Air Navigation (ICAN)
, 124, 125

International Coordinating Council of Aerospace Industries Associations (ICCAIA)
, 285

International gateway hubs
, 249

International inbound tourism
, 256

International tourism
, 257

demand
, 147–148

International tourist

arrivals
, 256–257

movements
, 257

Ireland-based Ryan
, 138

Itami (see Osaka International Airport)

iv-type instrument
, 206

J-test Statistics
, 206

Jakarta–Amsterdam–Jakarta market
, 51

Japan Air Service (JAS)
, 11–12

Japan Airlines (JAL)
, 11

Japanese aviation market, LCCs in

barriers of LCCs expansion
, 29

boost of inbound visitors in Japan and impact of LCC
, 25–29

competition between LCCs and high-speed rail
, 20–22

Japanese domestic market related to LCCs
, 11–12

location of major airports in Japan
, 10

movement of LCCs
, 12–20

Open Sky policy in Japan
, 22–25

trend of passenger volume in domestic market in Japan
, 10

Japanese Civil Aeronautics Act
, 11–12

Japanese Civil Aviation Bureau (JCAB)
, 22

Japanese domestic market
, 12

related to low-cost carriers
, 11–12

Jetstar
, 138, 246, 250, 260

Kansai (see Kansai International Airport)

Kansai Airport
, 13–14

Kansai International Airport
, 30

Kazakhstan

air liberalization index for
, 70, 72

air transport services
, 62

Keihanshin Metropolitan area
, 30

Key economic indicators
, 64

Key performance indices
, 270

Kiwi Regional Airlines
, 246

Korean Train Express (KTX)
, 81, 106

Kyrgyzstan

air transport services
, 62

WTO air liberalization index for
, 70

Labor cost
, 201

Land transport system
, 259

Lerner index
, 89

Liberalization
, 63, 268–269

in air transport
, 137

freedoms of air
, 137–138

relaxing ownership restrictions
, 138–139

Liberalization of Passenger Air Services in Bangkok
, 128

LIMDEP 8.0 package
, 178

Linear incentive

contract
, 277–278

scheme
, 270, 273

Linear payoff function model
, 283–284

Linear programming approach
, 203–204

Linear risk-sharing

contracts
, 270–271, 274

scheme
, 278

Load Factor Guarantee Mechanism (LFGM)
, 273, 278

Low-cost carriers (LCCs) (see also Economics of tourism demand and air transportation)
, 2–3, 11, 63, 84, 104, 128–130, 249, 260, 269

barriers of LCCs expansion
, 29

competition between HSR and
, 20–22

and HSR interaction
, 106–110

impact
, 25–29

Japanese domestic market related to
, 11–12

movement of
, 12–20

Lumpy investment
, 269

Madrid–Barcelona market
, 111

Maintenance, repair, and overhauls activities (MRO activities)
, 196, 199

Malmquist Productivity Index (MPI)
, 200, 203, 223

Mann–Whitney–Wilcoxon test (MWW test)
, 223, 228, 233, 235

Market

analysis for Central Asia
, 68–74

competition index
, 89, 90

concentration index
, 89

market-oriented reforms
, 80

market/route fixed-effects
, 156

Mathematical programming approaches
, 202

MaxDEA software Pro 6.2
, 205

Mean-variance utility function
, 279–280, 284

Measurement error
, 150

MEC
, 263 n3

“Mid-and Long-Term Railway Network Plan”
, 81

Mid-to-Long-Term Railway Network Plan (MLTRNP)
, 92, 107

Middle East airlines: Emirates, Etihad, and Qatar Airways (ME3)
, 3, 34, 36

location advantages
, 41–46

Mining-related industry
, 147

Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport, and Tourism (MLIT)
, 9, 11

Ministry of Railways (MOR)
, 92, 111–112

Ministry of Transport (MOT)
, 93

Modal split models
, 96

Modified employee counts (MECs)
, 252

Moments estimator, generalized method of
, 205–207

Movement
, 228

Multilateral Agreement (MA)
, 128

Multilateral Agreement on Full Liberalization of Passenger Air Services (MAFLPAS)
, 128

Multiple-airports system (MAS)
, 116

Nagoya/Centrair airport
, 9, 11

‘Naive’ model
, 179–182

Narita (see Narita International Airport)

Narita International Airport
, 30

Narita–Amami by Vanilla Air
, 17

Nash bargaining framework
, 277, 280

National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC)
, 80

National ownership rules
, 128

National-wide analysis
, 95

Negotiation power balance
, 283–284

Nelson airport
, 251

New Chitose Airport
, 30

“New emerging” airlines
, 12, 17, 29

New Regulations for Foreign Investment in Civil Aviation Industry
, 84

New Zealand Airport Association
, 252, 258–259

New Zealand’s airports
, 246

impact of airline operations and tourism growth
, 259–260

airports role in economic development
, 251–259

infrastructure development and future plan of
, 261

performance and network change in
, 246–251

recent development and airlines in service
, 262

system
, 7

New Zealand’s economy
, 7, 246, 255–258

“New” AirAsia Japan
, 17

Newly industrialized countries (NICs)
, 196

Ninth freedom of air
, 125, 138

Noncore services
, 199

Noneconomic determinants
, 3

Noneconomic factors
, 66

Northwest Airlines
, 131

Notice on Deepening Domestic Airfare Reform
, 83

Notice on Policies Concerning Foreign Investment in Civil Aviation
, 84

Noto Airport
, 273

LFGM
, 273–276

Official Airline Guide (OAG)
, 73, 246

OLS
, 155, 158

dynamic pooled
, 162

simple pooled OLS model
, 156

On-time performance of scheduled flights
, 171, 173–178

“One class multiple discounts” policy
, 83

One way airfare (OW airfare)
, 130

Open Skies
, 126–128

impact of
, 133–134

agreement
, 63, 127, 137–138

air policy
, 22–25, 119

Operating cost
, 201

Operating fleet
, 201

Operating margin (OMit)
, 178

Operating revenue
, 177

“Opinion with regard to Promotion of Civil Aviation Development”
, 83

Origin-destination (OD)
, 109

Orthogonality conditions
, 159

Osaka International Airport
, 30

Osaka Metropolitan Area
, 28–29

Osaka/Itami airport
, 9, 11

Osaka/Kansai airport
, 9, 11

Output-oriented efficiency indicator
, 224

Outsourcing
, 197

and airline performance
, 198–199

airlines
, 201–202

data descriptions and empirical approach
, 199

generalized method of moments estimator
, 205–207

impact on airlines’ performance
, 196–197

impact results on productivity and technical efficiency
, 213–215

measuring productivity change of airlines
, 203–205

performance enhancing attributes
, 198

results of airlines technical efficiency and productivity
, 207–213

technical efficiency and productivity growth
, 199–200

technical efficiency estimation
, 202–203

Overall technical efficiency (OTE)
, 223

Panel fixed-effects model
, 152

Paris Convention conference (1919)
, 124

Passenger kilometer (PKM)
, 179, 193

Passengers
, 1–2, 228

demand and satisfaction
, 4–5

expectations in Chinese Airline Industry
, 169–192

income
, 2

volume
, 66

PB Air
, 130

Peach Aviation and Jetstar Japan
, 2–3

People’s Republic of China (PRC)
, 82

Performance enhancing attributes of outsourcing
, 198

Pre-tax profit margin (PTPM)
, 178, 192

“Price of Domestic Air Transport Aviation Reform Program”
, 80

Pricing
, 48, 50

Amsterdam–Jakarta–Amsterdam Itinerary
, 52

Frankfurt–Kuala Lumpur–Frankfurt Itinerary
, 54

Jakarta–Amsterdam–Jakarta Itinerary
, 53

Kuala Lumpur–Frankfurt–Kuala Lumpur Itinerary
, 55

model
, 80

revenue (USD) per passenger over years
, 57

Shanghai (Pudong)–Singapore–Shanghai Itinerary
, 57

Sydney–London, UK–Sydney Itinerary
, 56

Private and foreign investment
, 139

Private sector
, 270

Privatization
, 84–85, 246, 269

Profitability in Chinese Airline Industry
, 169–192

Propensity score matching (PSM)
, 96, 109

Public Private Partnership (PPP)
, 269

Qantas
, 250

Qantas Airways
, 130

Qatar Airways
, 36

Qualitative factors (QF)
, 148

Queenstown airport
, 263

R&D productivity
, 224

Railway administration functions
, 93

Random effect model
, 73–74

Rate-making distance
, 93

Reference point
, 280

Regional airlines, elimination of
, 85

Regional airports
, 249, 260

Regional type airport
, 232, 234

Regional/local airports
, 11

Regulation (see also Deregulation)

in air transport
, 124–128

history
, 124–126

regulatory reform
, 2

“Regulation on Domestic Investment on Civil Aviation”
, 84

“Regulation on Operation of Chinese Civil Aviation Domestic Routes and Flights”
, 84

“Regulation on Operation on Domestic Routes”
, 84

Revenue passenger kilometer (RPK)
, 196, 201

Revenue ton kilometer (RTK)
, 171, 178, 193

Risk-sharing contract

aviation overview for Asia Pacific Region
, 268–270

discussion
, 283–284

framework of analysis
, 280–283

intercept or reference point
, 280

literature review
, 271–273

model
, 276

Noto airport LFGM
, 273–276

results
, 280

setting
, 276–280

slope
, 280

vertical arrangements and linear risk-sharing contracts
, 270–271

Ryanair effect
, 129

Safety effect
, 95, 105

of HSR speed on airlines
, 111–112

Sakon Nakhon
, 130

Sapporo (see New Chitose Airport)

Sapporo airport
, 9, 11

Sargan test of overidentifying restrictions
, 206

“Scheme of Domestic Airfare Reform”
, 83

Seat capacity
, 146

Sendai Airport
, 25

Sensitivity analyses
, 96

Serial correlation
, 156

Service quality in Chinese Airline Industry
, 169–192

Service transit agreement
, 125

Seventh freedom of air
, 137–138

Shanghai Airlines
, 84

Shanghai Hongqiao International Airport
, 88, 117–118

Shanghai Pudong International Airport
, 88

Shenzhen Airlines
, 84, 86–87, 177

Shinkansen, dense network of HSR
, 20

Shirking behavior
, 270

Simple linear payoff function
, 283

Singapore Airlines
, 3, 250

competing on quality
, 46

FSC Singapore Airlines
, 3

full-service Oman Air
, 36

lessons from
, 58–59

ME3’s location advantages
, 41–46

pricing
, 48, 50–57

route map for Emirates
, 37

route network
, 38–39

scheduled flight routings for Emirates to Europe & South-East Asia
, 35

service features
, 46–48, 49–50

strengths
, 56, 58

Single Aviation Market (SAM)
, 63

agreement
, 125

Skymark Airlines
, 11–12

Skynet Asia Airways
, 11–12

SkyTeam
, 131–132

Slope
, 280

Sociopolitical factors
, 3

Solaseed Air
, 12

Sounds Air
, 246, 251

Southeast Asian countries
, 221

Southwest Airlines
, 129

“Southwest effect”
, 129, 130

Speed reduction
, 112

Spring Airlines
, 84–85, 98, 109

Sri Lankan Airlines’ codeshare partnership
, 131

Star Alliance
, 131–132

Star Flyer
, 12

Statistical Data on Civil Aviation of China
, 172

Stimulative effect of aviation
, 164

Strategic outsourcing
, 197

Super-SBM DEA model
, 224

System GMM procedure
, 205

Tag-end cabotage
, 125

Tajikistan

air liberalization index for
, 72

air transport services
, 62

Target load factor
, 280

Technical efficiency of airline, outsourcing impact on
, 213–215

TFP MPI
, 203

Thai Airways International
, 130, 137

Thomson Airways
, 250

Tobit model
, 172

Tokyo International Airport
, 30

Tokyo/Haneda airport
, 9, 11

Tokyo/Narita airport
, 9, 11

Total inbound visitors
, 159–162

Total-factor output efficiencies (TFOE)
, 233

annual average efficiency score
, 230–231

ASEAN
, 221–222

average output efficiency scores of airports
, 230

average passenger efficiency scores by ASEAN countries
, 231–232

cargo efficiency of ASEAN airports
, 240–241

correlation coefficients of inputs and outputs
, 229

DEA
, 222–223

international type airport
, 232–234

literature review
, 223–224

methodology
, 224–228

movement efficiency of ASEAN airports
, 242–243

MWW test
, 235

passenger efficiency of ASEAN airports
, 238–239

results
, 228

Tourism
, 148

consumption
, 148

routes
, 16–17

Tourism 2025–Growing Value Together
, 257

Tourism demand

causality in aviation and
, 151–152

economics
, 147–151

Tourism development in Asia Pacific

air transport deregulation impact on tourism industry
, 128–134

Hong Kong–Bangkok market
, 134–137

liberalization in air transport
, 137–139

regulation and deregulation in air transport
, 124–128

Tourism growth
, 7

airports role in
, 255–259

impact on airport planning and development
, 259–260

Trans World Airlines (TWA)
, 126

Transport mode
, 2

Travel purpose
, 162–163

“Travel time” effect
, 95, 105, 110

of HSR speed on airlines
, 111

Turkmenistan

air liberalization index for
, 72

air transport services
, 62

Two-stage approach
, 223

Two-stage least square (2SLS)
, 73, 74–75

Two-step GMM estimator
, 206, 213

“Tyranny” of distance
, 153

UK EasyJet
, 138

UK House of Commons Transport Committee
, 62

United Arab Emirates
, 128, 139

United Nations World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO)
, 148

United States (US)

airline market
, 125

aviation market
, 126

open-skies model
, 127

Urumqi
, 66

Uzbekistan

air transport services
, 62

WTO air liberalization index for
, 71

Value-added effect (VA effect)
, 252, 255

Vanilla Air
, 20

Vertical alliance
, 268

Vertical arrangements
, 270–271

Vertical HSR corridors
, 98, 119

Virgin Australia
, 250

Visiting friends and relatives (VFR)
, 163, 256

Wellington airport
, 249–251

Wenzhou train accident
, 95

World Trade Organization (WTO)
, 66–67

ALI for Kyrgyzstan
, 70

ALI for Uzbekistan
, 71

Trade Facilitation Agreement
, 1

Zhengzhou airport
, 106, 108