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The Equal Pay Act 1970 (which came into operation on 29 December 1975) provides for an “equality clause” to be written into all contracts of employment. S.1(2) (a) of the 1970 Act (which has been amended by the Sex Discrimination Act 1975) provides:

Most public finance analysts recognized the significant redistributive aspects of our current social security system — intragenerational and intergenerational transfers. The intragenerational redistribution is fairly straightforward and well documented. Even though the intergenerational transfers are easily understood and generally agreed upon, the magnitudes of these transfers are not so well reported. The purpose of this paper is to estimate the size of the intergenerational redistribution that has occurred and will continue to occur as a result of our pay‐as‐you‐go system of social security. Based upon average earnings, tax rates, and benefits received under social security, it is possible to estimate the relationship between taxes paid and benefits received for representative individuals who have worked and retired under social security. The preliminary analysis suggests that the usual conclusion about intergenerational redistribution is fundamentally correct, but needs modifying. This research shows that although the earliest retirees received the highest internal rates of return, in terms of real benefits in excess of taxes paid, those individuals who retired between 1970 and 1980 received the largest inflation adjusted transfers. Further, according to the analysis, social security has paid retirees in the aggregate more than $4.5 trillion dollars in benefits above what the recipients have paid in taxes. By the year 2020, when retirees are expected to receive in benefits the amount paid in taxes, this cumulative excess is projected to be about $9.2 trillion.

This paper aims to report on the results of an analysis of the computer security problem space, to suggest the areas with highest potential for making progress in the attacker‐defender game, and to propose questions for future research.

The decomposition of the attacker‐defender game into technological, human, and social factors enables one to analyze the concentration of public research efforts by defenders. First, representative activities are selected, then each activity is mapped into the technological, human and social (THS) basis. Afterwards, citation databases are used to estimate the relative volume of publications on each selected activity in the science and engineering communities. Finally, drawing on a number of relevant theories in organizational theory, sociology, and political science, avenues for exploring the social dimension by the defenders are discussed.

The analysis suggests that over 94 percent of the public research in computer security has been concentrated on technological advances. Yet attackers seem to employ more and more human and social factors in their attacks. The social organization of the attackers allows them to achieve the results not possible otherwise, shifting the balance in their favour. It is suggested that the scope of research should be broadened, to involve organizational behavior and structure as well as social capital aspects that are currently not high on computer security research agenda.

The queries limit the search to public content written in the English language only. Since the authors are concerned with the relative (rather than absolute) volume of each activity, it is an open question whether this limitation biases the results.

As the arms race in computer security progresses, social factors may become or already are increasingly important. The side that capitalizes on them sooner may gain the competitive advantage.

A simple method for gauging the focus of research efforts in the computer security community and for considering computer security problem space through the lens of social sciences is developed.

Opinions towards social security reflect the interests and ideologies that individuals have. The earlier population‐based opinion studies of the welfare state can be utilised when we are creating a theoretical background for examining the physicians' opinions but also physician‐specific indicators are needed. The purpose of this paper is to analyse physicians' opinions on social security. Opinions are compared to those of citizen‐level groups.

The 2,000 working age physicians' random survey sample was picked from the register of the Finnish Medical Association (n = 1,092, response rate 54.6 percent). The data were analysed using frequencies and multinomial logistic regression analysis.

Compared to all other citizen‐level groups, the physicians think that the level of social security is too high. Physicians want to target cuts somewhere else than social or health services. Female physicians support higher social security. Young doctors and specialists think more often that social security is too high. Left‐wing political orientation is the clearest predictor of all opinions.

The results are important because physicians are a big and powerful occupational group in the welfare state. The opinions of physicians towards the social security have not been studied in countries with large social security systems or countries where physicians are mainly public sector employees.

This study concentrates on assessing the research productivity in the domain of social media security in the past decades. The purpose of this study is to conduct a comprehensive bibliometric review on social media using various bibliometric indicators.

A total of 8,121 scientific publications were retrieved from Scopus database from period 1998 to 2021 using associated keyword search. This study also used VOSviewer^© tool to evaluate the network visualisation.

The result of this study revealed that there is a steady growth of annual publications except for the years 2015 and 2016. A total of 8,121 scientific publications and 80,454 total citations were found with 11.2 average citations per publication. The USA, China and India were top productive countries in terms of publishing research in the field; Chinese Academy of Sciences secured top position with 126 publications in highly productive organisation in the domain. The lecture notes in computer science from Springer Nature received a highly produced title with 553 publications and 4,453 total citations. For co-occurrence of author’s keywords, network visualisation analysis revealed that “Social Media”, “Social Network”, “Security”, “Privacy” and “Trust” found maximum occurrence in the domain of social media security.

This study provides comprehensive research status of social media security by performing a bibliometric analysis. The findings of this study will help relevant researchers to understand the research trend, pursue scientific collaborators and enhance research topic preferences.

The rareness of this study, detailed bibliometric analysis on the domain of social media security, is proven using numerous bibliometric indicators and application of VOSviewer in the domain.

The purpose of the study is to emphasise the urgent need for pension policy reform within Indonesia’s social security system.

The methodology employed in this research includes qualitative techniques such as in-depth interviews and thematic content analysis.

The findings suggest various measures for pension reform, including revising eligibility criteria, adjusting benefit designs to cover housing and transportation costs, promoting Defined Benefit Plans, enforcing compliance, addressing insufficient contributions, advocating for transparency, and aligning social assistance programs with pension system enhancements. However, there is a trade-off between the adequacy of pension benefits and the amount of resources required.

This study is limited by the need for more individuals knowledgeable about pension issues in Indonesia, primarily due to their high-ranking positions, making access challenging and potentially compromising the small sample size in research.

The research underscores the importance of maintaining policy consistency. It proposes a gradual increase in pension contributions as a pivotal strategy to ensure sustained financial security for retirees, particularly in the face of fiscal constraints. Also, the government should undertake comprehensive reforms, encompassing the revision of eligibility criteria, adjustment of minimum benefit designs, encouragement of employer contributions and effective management of compliance issues.

Social implications emphasise the importance of enhancing the financial security of retirees within Indonesia’s ageing population.

The originality and value of the research lie in guiding pension reform from the viewpoint of key policymakers involved in Indonesia’s pension system.

The purpose of this paper is to analyze the current problems and the main perspectives of the development of state regulation of the Russian system of higher education in the context of the provision of Russia’s national security.

The research of formation of the system of national security in Russia and the problems of the development of education is based on the methods of Russian and foreign Institutionalists (D. North, S.G. Kirdina, R.M. Nureev, Y.V. Latov, etc.). The research is also based on the theory of inequality in the system of education (D.L. Konstantinovsky), the idea of cultural aspects of social inequality (Pierre Bourdieu) and the theory that connects the problem of the development of the educational system with the system of national security and social inequalities (A.V. Vereshchagina, S.I. Samygina, etc.).

The modern state and perspectives of state regulation of higher education in the modern Russian conditions are analyzed in this paper. A complex analysis of risks of the modern state of Russia’s educational system is performed, and educational inequality as a risk to national security is studied in this paper. Perspectives of state regulation of higher education in view of the national model of socio-economic activities and principles of national security are viewed in this paper. The main directions of improving the educational system in the context of the provision of national security of the state are given in this paper.

The results of the research could be used for correcting the main directions of Russia’s socio-economic policy in the long term. The central trend of this policy is the reformation of the development of the sphere of education as a factor of the formation of the system of Russia’s national security.

The results of the research could be used for correcting the main directions of Russia’s socio-economic policy in the long term. The central trend of this policy is the reformation of the development of the sphere of education as a factor of formation of the system of Russia’s national security.

The ideas of the research could stimulate the reconsideration and harmonization of perspectives of the development of social policy of the state, which includes the interaction of the development of higher education and system of national security.

Originality of this paper consists in setting the problem of the implementation of social senses of the development of state policy in the sphere of higher education into the discourse of theoretical and practical consideration of the problems of national security.

This paper aims to outline strategies for defence against social engineering that are missing in the current best practices of information technology (IT) security. Reason for the incomplete training techniques in IT security is the interdisciplinary of the field. Social engineering is focusing on exploiting human behaviour, and this is not sufficiently addressed in IT security. Instead, most defence strategies are devised by IT security experts with a background in information systems rather than human behaviour. The authors aim to outline this gap and point out strategies to fill the gaps.

The authors conducted a literature review from viewpoint IT security and viewpoint of social psychology. In addition, they mapped the results to outline gaps and analysed how these gaps could be filled using established methods from social psychology and discussed the findings.

The authors analysed gaps in social engineering defences and mapped them to underlying psychological principles of social engineering attacks, for example, social proof. Furthermore, the authors discuss which type of countermeasure proposed in social psychology should be applied to counteract which principle. The authors derived two training strategies from these results that go beyond the state-of-the-art trainings in IT security and allow security professionals to raise companies’ bars against social engineering attacks.

The training strategies outline how interdisciplinary research between computer science and social psychology can lead to a more complete defence against social engineering by providing reference points for researchers and IT security professionals with advice on how to improve training.

The purpose of this paper is to establish the main factors influencing willingness to pay for health insurance and pension schemes among informal workers in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Historically, informal economy workers have been excluded from social protection coverage. There is a growing need, interest and policy discourse in LMICs to extend social security to informal economy workers. However, little is known about informal workers' willingness to pay (WTP) for social security services in different LMIC settings.

The authors conducted a systematic review and searched five databases from 1987 to 2017. Included papers focused on “social security”, “social insurance”, “pension”, “informal economy”, “informal sector” and “informal workers” in LMICs. Authors conducted independent data appraisal and data extraction. A total of 1790 papers were identified. After exclusion, 34 papers were included in the analysis. Given the heterogeneous results, the authors performed a narrative synthesis to consolidate the findings of the different studies.

In total, 34 studies from 17 countries were included in the review, out of which 23 studies focused on health insurance, 7 studies on pension schemes and 4 studies on social security in general. The study showed that income and trust were associated with WTP for both health insurance and pension schemes. In addition, family size, age, education and residential area were common factors for both forms of social security. For health insurance, experience of sickness, attitude and presence of medical doctors as well as distance from the healthcare facility all played a role in determining WTP. For pension schemes, low and flexible contribution rates, benefit package, government subsidies and quality of administration of the schemes influenced enrolment and contributions.

More evidence is needed for WTP for pensions among informal workers.

The findings show that socio-economic differences, scheme-type (health or pension) and level of trust influence WTP for health insurance or pension among informal sector workers. The review results suggest that the factors influencing WTP for health insurance and pensions interplay in a complex web of relations. More evidence is needed on WTP for pensions among informal workers.

Further studies are particularly needed on the interrelationship of the influences to WTP, including gender issues, access barriers and socioeconomic factors, among program design issues for social security.

This paper is based on a systematic review methodology and contributes to the discourse on extending social security to informal economy workers based on evidence from various countries.

Attempts to establish the extent to which the use of computers in Australia’s Department of Social Security (DSS) has facilitated changes in social security policy and its administration. Bases findings on case studies relating to two new DSS policies, supplemented with documentary evidence. Identifies that computers are used in the DSS for six main purposes ‐ administering, automating, protecting, monitoring and evaluating policy, as well as for modelling future policy options. Identifies that, instead of increasing efficiency in administration, computers have simply increased productivity by enabling administrative practices to be extended into new areas; observes an emerging computer‐dependent culture dominated by quantitative (rather than qualitative) practices. Establishes that the flexibility offered by computer technology has also contributed to the introduction of more complex social security policies. Concludes that computer technology has contributed to the formulation and administration of social security policies.