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As rural nonfarm activities grow in developing countries, less attention is being paid to the opportunities they may provide for women. The purpose of this study is to examine the gender-differentiated impact of nonfarm diversification strategies in rural Senegal.

This study uses data collected from the Senegalese poverty monitoring survey and employs an instrumental variable (IV) approach and a multinomial endogenous treatment model to investigate the extent to which diversification strategies lead to improved outcomes for rural women and their households.

While nonfarm diversification is a male-dominated livelihood strategy, rural women make the most of it, regardless of whether they diversify into low- or high-return nonfarm activities. At the individual level, diversification improves rural women’s well-being through large income-increasing effects and higher empowerment but has no effect on rural men’s well-being. At the household level, the authors find that, when only women diversify, households have lower per capita income but are less likely to be food insecure than when only men or both genders diversify.

This study is based on cross-sectional data, making it impossible to examine the dynamic effects of nonfarm diversification strategies on well-being outcomes.

This study contributes to the current literature on rural livelihood diversification. While much attention has been paid to the feminization of agriculture, remarkably little is known about the expanding role of rural women in the nonfarm sector.

The agricultural sector is a critical component of global economic development, and its significance has grown significantly in recent years. The risks associated with agriculture and the behaviors of farmers in handling these risks are becoming increasingly important, given the sector’s increasing dependence worldwide. Various activities related to agriculture are vulnerable to multiple risks, which can have severe consequences for farmers’ livelihoods. The purpose of this systematic review is to present a comprehensive analysis of the sources of risk faced by farmers and their choices in adopting risk management strategies worldwide.

The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses protocol was utilized to select relevant literature, and a total of 102 studies were analyzed. Through the use of Venn diagrams and graphical methods, the authors provide a transparent overview of the risks faced by farmers and the adoption of risk management strategies in developed and developing countries.

From the analysis, the authors found that, in terms of risk management strategies, diversification, reserve credit and accumulated assets are frequently used in developing countries, while developed countries tend to rely on future/forward contracts, crop insurance and hedging. Diversification is the most widely used risk management strategy across both developed and developing countries. Our study also highlights the different perceptions of weather-related risks among growers in developed and developing countries.

This systematic review provides valuable insights into the risks associated with agriculture and farmers' strategies in managing these risks, which could inform policy decisions and promote sustainable agricultural practices. For instance, understanding the individualistic nature of farmers' risk perception and the varying risk sources and management strategies depending on the locality and provide assistance to the farmers accordingly.

The paper explains how farmers behave during uncertainty in terms of risk perception and their decision to adopt risk management strategies in developed and developing countries.

This study aims to reconstruct how smallholder farmers implement livelihood adaptation strategies to survive and escape poverty, thereby mitigating or eliminating potential livelihood risks by utilizing their available assets.

This research employed a qualitative approach. For the collection of primary data, the researcher conducted observations and in-depth interviews and engaged with the lives of smallholder farmers during the data collection period.

Among the various livelihood adaptation strategies, only migration and profit-sharing strategies enable smallholder farmers to escape poverty. However, migration is an unsustainable adaptation strategy. When farmers move to new locations, they often resort to slash-and-burn methods for clearing land, which can lead to forest degradation and deforestation. Profit sharing is a sustainable livelihood adaptation strategy that falls into a different category. This approach can lift farmers out of poverty, increase their income and have no negative environmental impact. Other adaptation strategies include adjustments to traditional agriculture, both on and off-farm diversification, involving the family in income generation, reducing farming costs, practicing frugality in post-harvest processes, converting land from coffee cultivation to other crops and borrowing money and selling owned assets. Smallholder farmers implement these strategies to survive the existing economic conditions.

The profit-sharing strategy was a novel livelihood adaptation approach that previous studies had yet to uncover at the research site. In this strategy, farmers assume the roles of both managers and laborers simultaneously during farming, while toke (the capital owners) play the role of farming funders. The generated profit is then shared between farmers and toke based on the agreement established at the outset of their collaboration.

The percentage of tourism revenues from the national income decreased during the period (2000: 2020) which necessitates diversification in tourism activity and tourism revenues through agricultural tourism as one of the types of tourism activities. On other hand, Al-Ahsa governorate is the largest governorate in Saudi Arabia, covering an area of about 2,500 square kilometers. Moreover, it includes an oasis that is the largest irrigated agricultural oases in the world. It is distinguished by its strategic geographical location, in addition to being one of the most famous palm oasis in the world. Although Al-Ahsa governorate has many ingredients for agricultural tourism; the number of farms approved in the Aryaf program reached about 101 farms at the level of Al-Ahsa with a rate that not exceed about 0.5% of farms in 2018 of the total farms. That means it still Agricultural tourism has not received sufficient attention from investors and farm owners.

The study targeted planning for agricultural tourism activities in Al-Ahsa Governorate using a long-term sustainable approach to achieve sustainable development and diversification of sources income in agriculture sector. The study depended on the sample size was determined from Al-Ahsa farms in light of the fact that the number of farm owners in Al-Ahsa. In addition the study relied on the use of descriptive and quantitative statistical analysis through the use of percentages, chi-square test and Likert's triple test.

The results of the study strategic plans of farms in Al-Ahsa points to the importance of enhancing agricultural tourism services in Al-Ahsa, including health, environmental, recreational and food services, which may have an impact on increasing the economic return of farms in a better way in order to gain competitive advantage by focusing on developing the farms themselves in line with the Aryaf program of the Ministry of Tourism in the Kingdom to ensure safe and sustainable growth of revenues Economic.

This study is concerned with Agricultural Tourism. The study is helpful in policy formation to target sustainable development and diversification of sources income in Saudi Arabia. The authors whose names are listed immediately below certify that they have NO affiliations with or involvement in any organization or entity with any financial interest (such as honoraria; educational grants; participation in speakers' bureaus; membership, employment, consultancies, stock ownership, or other equity interest; and expert testimony or patent-licensing arrangements), or non-financial interest (such as personal or professional relationships, affiliations, knowledge or beliefs) in the subject matter or materials discussed in this manuscript.

The average U.S. farm size has risen dramatically over the last three decades. Motives for this trend are the subject of a large body of literature. This study incorporates farm size risk and return analysis into this research stream. In this paper, cross-sectional and temporal relations between farm size and returns are examined and characterized.

Relying on farm level panel data from Kansas Farm Management Association (KFMA) for 140 farms from 1996 to 2018, this article examines the relationship between farm size and returns and investigates whether farm size is related to risk. Two measures of farm returns are used: excess return on equity and risk-adjusted return on equity. Value of farm production and total farm acres are used as measures of farm size.

Findings suggest a significant and positive relationship between farm size and excess return on equity as well as farm size and risk-adjusted return on equity. However, this return premium associated with farm size is not associated with additional risk. Stated differently, farm size can be viewed as a farm characteristic that is associated with higher return without additional risk.

These findings provide further support for ongoing farm consolidation.

The results suggest the trend towards consolidation in production agriculture is likely to continue. Larger farms bear less risk.

This study aims to draw observations on the current status and potentials of the Philippines as a farm tourism destination and identify the underlying factors that inhibit farm tourism development. It intends to gauge the challenges that Filipino farmers face in diversifying farms and operating farm sites and uses these challenges in crafting strategies and policies for relevant stakeholders. It also provides Philippine farm tourism literature to address the limitations of references in the topic.

The study adopts an exploratory type of inquiry method and secondary data collection from various sources, such as published journal articles, news articles and reports, to gain insights and relevant information on farm tourism. The study also uses a threats, opportunities, weaknesses and strengths analysis approach to develop competitive farm tourism strategies.

The Philippines, with vast agricultural land, has the necessary base for farm tourism, and the enactment of the Farm Tourism Development Act of 2016 bridges this potential. With low agricultural outputs, the country draws relevance for farm tourism as a farm diversification strategy to supplement income in rural communities. While having these potentials, crucial initiatives in physical characteristics, product development, education and training, management and entrepreneurship, marketing and customer relations and government support must be implemented. Farmers' lack of skills, training and capital investment potential to convert their farms into farm tourism sites serves as the major drawback. Thus, developing entrepreneurial and hospitality skills is crucial.

This work presents a historical narrative of initiatives and measures of the Philippine farm tourism sector. It also provides a holistic discussion and in-depth analysis of the current state, potentials, strategies and forward insights for farm tourism development.

Ecosystem-based livelihood diversification (ESLD) approaches have been identified as one of the best solutions to alleviate poverty and improve living standards in rural communities in developing nations. This study aims to elucidate the motivations that drive Sri Lankan women in rural agri-based community to adopt ESLD activities.

The sustainable livelihood approach (SLA) five pillars were used as a theoretical framework. This study was carried out with women living in farmer families located in Anuradhapura District, Sri Lanka. A purposive sampling technique was used, and semistructured interviews were performed with 46 women in a noncontrived setting. Deductive content analysis approach was used for answering research questions.

Making handcrafts using different plants, composting and home gardening are the major sources of ESLD of women in the study areas. Under the SLA factors, human resources include family size, education, vocational training, age and attitude. Social resources like participation in community work, family support received and becoming members in cooperatives encourage the women to partake in ESLD. Nonagriculture natural resources were considered as an incentive to engage in ESLD. Satisfaction with the income generated by the livelihood, other income sources and loans from the informal sector were the vital financial resources. Regarding the physical resources, the respondents were profound with infrastructure, marketplaces, training centers and tools/equipment.

Knowing the existing ESLD strategies and pointing out the determinant factors affecting women in practicing ESLD activities are unquestionably important in the provision of information to formulate an appropriate strategy for the development of the rural agri-based community.

Little is known about the ESLD efforts and the extent of adoption of ESLD practices by women in rural communities. The findings based on the SLA framework help to understand what is happening in livelihood diversifications in agri-based community and suggest important implications for the development of ESLD for the future.

This study investigates how income from non-farm activities affects households' consumption in two land holders' groups: households with insecure land holding and households with secure land holding.

Following an instrumental variable approach, this study analyzes data collected on a nationwide sample of 1,800 households in rural Burkina Faso.

For insecure land holders' group, this study finds that income from non-farm activities has a positive effect on household consumption per capita. Moreover, the share of household food consumption is negatively associated with non-farm income in this group. For secure land holders' group, the results show that non-farm income has only a negative effect on the share of their food consumption.

The study highlights the livelihood sustaining role of non-farm activities for rural households. Unlike previous studies, the results show that non-farm income is particularly important for land tenure insecure households facing risk of losing agricultural income.

The peer review history for this article is available at: https://publons.com/publon/10.1108/IJSE-05-2023-0423

This study aims at exploring the choices of livelihood strategies amongst the rural youth and how these choices relate to food security and income poverty.

The study used data from the 2016/17 wave of Integrated Household Living Condition Survey, with a sample size of 1,050 rural youths. Statistical and econometrics methods including descriptive statistics and the Multinomial Endogenous Treatment Effect (METE) model were used to analyse the data.

Livelihood choices were grouped into five categories, namely agriculture, non-farm wage employment, agriculture plus non-farm wage, agriculture plus self-employment and agriculture plus non-farm wage plus self-employment. The estimates from METE indicate that the youths' choice of non-farm wage, agriculture plus non-farm wage and agriculture plus self-employment contributes substantially to household food security improvement and poverty reduction. These findings show that agriculture is necessary but not a sufficient livelihood strategy to sustain the rural youth's contribution to youth's household welfare. The rural youth will pursue agriculture as a reliable source of livelihood not only for food self-sufficiency, but also for ensuring adequate return to labour.

This paper extends single choice analysis to multiple choices impact analysis, which has the advantage of accounting for selection bias due to both observed and unobserved heterogeneity. This paper assesses the differential impact of the choice of single as well as multiple livelihood strategies.

The farm sector is crucial for rural poverty alleviation, alongside the non-farm sector, which contributes to mitigating risks associated with crop failures. This paper investigates the effects of public policies on productive employment within both the farm and non-farm sectors in sub-Saharan Africa.

A meta-analysis is conducted exclusively on the results of the Partnership for Economic Policy (PEP)-funded studies under the Policy Analysis on Growth and Employment (PAGE II) initiative. Selected studies focused on the impact of public policies on productive employment in rural farm and non-farm sectors, encompassing a total of nine sub-Saharan Africa countries in: Benin, Burkina Faso, Cote d'Ivoire, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ghana, Lesotho, Nigeria, Senegal and South Africa.

The results indicate that public investments in rural areas and public policies that facilitate access to productive resources are likely to enhance productive employment. The overall effect size is positive and significant, ranging from 2% to 10% increases in productive employment. Sources of variation include the sector of activity and the policy instrument. In addition, the policy effects are gender-sensitive and seem more consistent in the non-farm sector.

Although the selected working papers addressed several aspects of productive employment, other aspects warrant further investigation. Policies involving restrictions or regulations have received little attention in the impact analysis. Researches to fill this gap would be important. Another suggestion for further research is the analysis of the relative importance of non-farm employment in rural areas in developing countries. It is always assumed that rural households depend heavily on agriculture for their subsistence.

The contribution of the paper lies in the comparative analysis of numerous public policies implemented in nine distinct countries. By consolidating data from fourteen 14 different experiences into a single study, the paper offers valuable insights on factors that determine policy effectiveness and contribute to understanding what worked for whom and why.