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This chapter examines the primary factors affecting the demand for parking, distinguishing between residential demands and parking at other destinations. The demand for parking relates not only to where people may want to park, but also at what time and for how long.

This chapter is largely based on an analysis of the Great Britain National Travel Survey (NTS), over the period 2002–2010. While data on residential parking is straightforward to obtain, extracting data for non-residential parking involves ‘following’ successive trips made by the same vehicle and deriving the duration of parking, using the NTS 7-day trip diary.

At the home end, the main variations in parking demand are related to housing type and residential density: the issues associated with residential parking are essentially an urban problem. At the destination end, commuting parking dominates because (a) it is the largest single purpose category; (b) with the minor exception of Holiday parking, it has the greatest duration; and (c) the onset of working time is more concentrated than that for other purposes. Nonetheless, at the peak of destination parking activity (around 12 noon), other purposes add about 44% to the base demand due to workplace parking.

The analysis also reveals that only a small percentage of destination parking acts make any payment, and that for those that do, the average is under £2 per stay. On an annual basis, it is suggested that parking consumes about 3% of motoring expenditure but 97% of motoring time (on average).

Residential Parking is only a significant problem at higher densities (above 45 ppHa, say) where the housing types required to support the population density result in competition for on-street parking. For non-residential parking, the dominance of commuter parking causes particular problems both in terms of space provision and its impact on mode choice. Neither form of parking capacity appears to be well managed by current pricing policy, at least on the basis of the British evidence.

To the author’s knowledge, diary travel surveys have not previously been analysed to investigate parking demand. While the technique is most relevant to multiple-day diaries like NTS, the approach opens up the possibility of more extensive analysis of other surveys to reveal the patterns of parking, and duration in particular.

This chapter defines and describes the different types of carfree and low-car development found in the United Kingdom and continental Europe, analysing the benefits and problems they bring and their implications for parking policy.

The chapter draws on the literature on UK and European carfree developments, including primary research conducted by the author into the potential for carfree development in the United Kingdom. It is also informed by a series of observational visits to some of the principal carfree developments around Europe.

The UK concepts of car-free and low-car housing are limited in scope, defined by the absence or reduced level of parking. The European concept of carfree development is broader, bringing greater benefits to the immediate residents. All have led to lower traffic generation. European carfree developments bring other benefits to their residents such as more socialisation between neighbours and earlier independence for children. The potential demand for car-free and low-car housing is greatest in the inner areas of larger cities. These are also the places which offer the most suitable development locations. The most common problems encountered relate to parking and/or management of vehicular access. To avoid overspill problems, parking needs to be controlled on the streets surrounding carfree or low-car developments.

The benefits of carfree development are greatest in urban areas where road capacity and/or parking are under the greatest pressure. Thus carfree development is a useful tool for cities undergoing urban intensification.

The chapter is the first to analyse carfree and low-car development from a parking perspective and to demonstrate their implications for parking policy.