Abstract
Purpose
The aim of the article is to analyze the effect of cause-related marketing on the attitude–behaviour gap of green consumption in the cosmetics industry. Specifically, the authors examine the relationship between attitude towards the environment, attitude towards green consumption, subjective norms of green consumption, green consumption intention, green consumption behaviour and cause-related marketing.
Design/methodology/approach
A cross-sectional research design was used to test the results of a random sample of 241 respondents and quantitative research was conducted using the data collected through an online questionnaire.
Findings
The research expanded the current knowledge on the effect of cause-related marketing on consumers’ green purchase behaviour and the findings suggested that green cosmetics producers and sellers should clearly define their target audience before choosing the type of cause-related marketing, as it mainly influences those consumers who have a positive attitude towards green consumption.
Research limitations/implications
The implications of the research are relevant for marketing specialists, managers and agencies who are looking to promote green cosmetics products.
Practical implications
Before promoting green cosmetics products, it is important to understand who the target consumer is and whether they have a positive attitude towards the environment, green consumption and also if they are affected by acquaintances’ opinions.
Originality/value
The study contributes to the already existing academic literature by providing a greater understanding of the effect of cause-related marketing on the attitude–behaviour gap of green consumption.
Keywords
Citation
Venciute, D., Kazukauskaite, M., Correia, R.F., Kuslys, M. and Vaiciukynas, E. (2023), "The effect of cause-related marketing on the green consumption attitude–behaviour gap in the cosmetics industry", Journal of Contemporary Marketing Science, Vol. 6 No. 1, pp. 22-45. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCMARS-08-2022-0019
Publisher
:Emerald Publishing Limited
Copyright © 2023, Emerald Publishing Limited
1. Introduction
Over the past two decades, consumers have become more aware of the effect of consumption on the environment and, consequently, the consumption of green products has increased (Broman and Robèrt, 2017; Hák et al., 2016). The concept of green consumption is widely used and described as consumer purchasing habits and behaviour with the intention of minimizing environmental outcomes (Harris et al., 2016; Ruppert-Stroescu et al., 2015). Furthermore, during the United Nations (UN) General Assembly in September 2015, 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were set to tackle global challenges by 2030 (United Nations General Assembly, 2015), where the twelfth goal was to ensure sustainable consumption and production. However, few countries meet the social development criteria, indicating a threat to the environment and planetary resources (Purvis et al., 2019).
Additionally, research showed that the inconsistency between consumer attitudes, intentions and behaviour appears at the time of actual green product purchase and is a known gap between attitude and behaviour of green consumption (Zralek, 2017; Terlau and Hirsch, 2015). Even though consumers or those around them have a positive attitude towards the environment and green consumption, these consumers do not necessarily buy green products (Wiederhold and Martinez, 2018; Perry and Chung, 2016; Joshi and Rahman, 2015).
Furthermore, since the concept of green consumption only appeared in the academic literature around 2006, the field of green consumption studies still lacks research (Lee and Kim, 2019). There is already some academic knowledge about the factors that cause the green consumption attitude–behaviour gap, including values and personal norms, a shortage of environmental knowledge of consumers, a higher price of green products or limited availability (Khare et al., 2019; Jaiswal and Kant, 2018; Park and Sohn, 2018; Yadav and Pathak, 2017). However, few studies aimed to close the gap between attitude and behaviour of green consumption and, consequently, to encourage green purchase behaviour, which is vital not only for producers of green products but also to achieve the UN’s SDGs (Lee and Kim, 2019; Howie et al., 2018).
In addition to the changing approach to consumption, the popularity of corporate social responsibilities has risen. One of the common initiatives used by socially responsible companies is cause-related marketing (Lee and Kim, 2019; Scuotto et al., 2017; Melero and Montaner, 2016). According to various definitions and implementation in the practice, sales of products are linked with the mutually beneficial efforts of a company and/or charities (Kim and Kim, 2018). Therefore, considering that this type of marketing is widely used for the promotion of green products, it is valuable to find out if this influences consumers and allows them to close the attitude–behaviour gap of green consumption and, as a result, encourage consumers not only to consider but actually buy green products.
Therefore, this research analyzes the effect of cause-related marketing on the attitude–behaviour gap of green consumption in a specific industry: cosmetics. The selection of this industry was not random. Sustainable consumption has been widely discussed in the food and clothing industries (Hsu et al., 2017; Armstrong et al., 2016; Barber et al., 2010). However, green purchase behaviour in the cosmetics industry still lacks deeper insights, especially in terms of the green consumption attitude–behaviour gap, which has been growing at a pace of almost 5% each year for the last five years worldwide, valuing the beauty and personal care market at 420 billion US dollars in 2018 with the forecast to reach 716.3 billion US dollars in 2025 (Statista, 2021).
2. Literature review
2.1 Green consumption behaviour
The concept of sustainable development was created by the UN and defined in the Brundtland Report in 1987, where it was described as meeting the needs of current generations without overusing resources, so that the needs of future generations would not be affected (Broman and Robèrt, 2017; Hák et al., 2016; UNWCED, 1987). There are significant bodies of literature where sustainable or green consumption terms are used interchangeably and the definitions of these concepts do not differ. All definitions involve consumer buying habits and recycling behaviour with the aim of minimizing environmental consequences (Harris et al., 2016; Ruppert-Stroescu et al., 2015). Thus, based on most of the literature, green consumption is chosen as the main concept of the investigation, although in the article green and sustainable consumption concepts are used synonymously.
Furthermore, some researchers consider green consumption as a social movement that requires the adoption of a specific approach towards purchasing and usage habits (Cohen and Muñoz, 2016; Kim and Chung, 2011), while in the “New Economics” literature, sustainable consumption requires not only adoption but fundamental revision in all three areas: social and economic systems as well as people’s lifestyle (Jackson, 2004). Following this idea, sustainability is made up of three pillars: social, economic and environmental (Purvis et al., 2019; Eizenberg and Jabareen, 2017; Shao et al., 2017).
2.2 Green consumption attitude–behaviour gap
Consumers are responsible for considering equally economic, ecological and social aspects in the entire consumption chain. However, at the time of actual purchase of green products, inconsistency between attitudes and/or intentions towards green consumption and/or actual behaviour, a known phenomenon called the attitude–behaviour gap, has been observed (Zralek, 2017; Terlau and Hirsch, 2015). Different research studies showed that while 30–50% of consumers have a favourable attitude towards or intention to buy green products, only about 3–5% purchase them (Wiederhold and Martinez, 2018; Perry and Chung, 2016). Therefore, it signals that even though consumers are aware of environmental issues, their attitude does not necessarily lead to green purchase behaviour (Joshi and Rahman, 2015).
Studies in green consumption field show that consumers who are eager to know more about eco-friendly products had a positive attitude towards green consumption (Paul et al., 2016; Sharma and Dayal, 2016). Additionally, Barber et al. (2010) contributed to the same findings in the wine sector. Contrarily, Vermeir and Verbeke (2006) found that consumers’ intentions and attitudes towards green products were inversed, thus signalling that research opinions in the field of green consumption attitude–behaviour gap vary.
2.3 Factors influencing the attitude–behaviour gap of green consumption
Considering that most studies of the attitude–behaviour gap of green consumption confirm its existence, it is important to understand its causal determinants. Therefore, Joshi and Rahman (2015) reviewed 53 articles on consumers’ green purchase behaviour and revealed that most research studies did not reveal the determinants of green purchase behaviour. However, even though various individual (i.e. customers have a choice to decide themselves) and situational (i.e. different situations in which a decision must be made) factors were identified, none of the studies analyzed the effect of any type of marketing on people’s sustainable consumption. Additionally, values and personal norms were listed among the most important individual factors influencing the green attitude–behaviour gap, meanwhile price, product availability, product attributes and quality were classified as situational factors (Joshi and Rahman, 2015).
2.4 Cause-related marketing
In the context of changing the consumption approach and the emergence of ethical buyers who have socially responsible consumption habits, cause-related marketing initiatives have become common among socially accountable companies, especially those engaged in corporate social responsibility (CSR) activities (Christofi et al., 2018; Scuotto et al., 2017; Melero and Montaner, 2016). Cause-related marketing involves the sales of products related to donations or mutually beneficial efforts between a company and a non-profit organization (NGO) to contribute to an environmental cause (Lee and Kim, 2019).
In addition to this, companies develop cause-related marketing strategies that consumers would be interested in supporting and becoming involved in with the actual aim of achieving their marketing objectives (Barone et al., 2000; Smith and Alcorn, 1991). Furthermore, some studies state that this type of marketing is a trade-off between a company, consumers and a social cause in which all goals are achieved, that is, a company makes profit, consumers get a product or service, and an additional benefit is achieved to solve a social problem (Christofi et al., 2018).
The contribution of customers is highly advantageous from a company’s perspective because when consumers are more willing to contribute, it is easier to establish a relationship with them and show commitment to social responsibility (Melero and Montaner, 2016). Thus, cause-related marketing is found to be an effective way to reach consumers at an emotional level, and as a result, positively influence purchase behaviour as well (Roy, 2010).
2.5 Types of cause-related marketing
Although there are different types of cause-related marketing, most of the literature analyzed sponsorship or donation as the main type of this marketing (Kim and Kim, 2018; Das et al., 2016). However, according to some researchers, four main types can be identified, including two additional types of cause-related marketing that are not broadly analyzed in the literature (Lee and Kim, 2019; Howie et al., 2018): sponsorship-linked marketing; transaction-based cause-related marketing (CRM); cause-related event marketing and cause-related experiential event marketing (see Table 1).
2.6 Consumer scepticism towards a new form of corporate philanthropy
Although cause-related marketing is expected to be accepted by consumers as favourable, some research studies made different conclusions. If sponsorship-linked ads are thematically tied to sports events, temporary consumer scepticism might arise; however, in the long run, it is treated more favourably by consumers compared to traditional ads (Kelly et al., 2012). Furthermore, cause-related marketing activities could be seen as a new form of corporate philanthropy based on profit-driven giving with the aim of contributing to society (Howie et al., 2018; Varadarajan and Menon, 1988). However, Chen and Huang (2016) state that from the company’s perspective, these two CSR approaches, cause-related marketing and corporate philanthropy, are distant, and cause-related marketing is less impactful for improving the brand image and has a weaker effect on consumers’ intentions to buy.
Additionally, together with popularity, cause-related marketing gains more scepticism among consumers, researchers and businesses (Strizhakova and Coulter, 2019; Woodroof et al., 2019; Hamby and Brinberg, 2018). Consumer scepticism is influenced by various factors, such as motives, familiarity, brand-cause fit and size of donation, which, if not properly controlled, turn into consumer scepticism and unwillingness to buy (Hamby and Brinberg, 2018; Rifon et al., 2004).
It was found that perceived control over the process, transparency and the right to choose the cause to donate to has a positive impact on donations and willingness to pay (Christofi et al., 2018). Therefore, if consumers understand and perceive their participation in cause-related marketing activity as a favourable and influential activity, their attitude towards the company and the product, as well as their intention to buy, are positively influenced by marketing techniques (Broderick et al., 2003; Robinson et al., 2012).
2.7 Linking the attitude–behaviour gap and cause-related marketing in the context of green consumption in the cosmetics industry
In recent years, consumers have started to consider the ingredients of cosmetics and their effect on health more; therefore, interest in green cosmetics has increased (Liobikienė and Bernatonienė, 2017; Patel et al., 2015; Akehurst et al., 2012). Furthermore, people who have a certain environmental knowledge about the negative impact of cosmetics on the environment are more likely to purchase green cosmetics (Ritter et al., 2015). As academics indicate, the intention to buy organic products, including cosmetics, is significantly impacted by consumers’ attitudes towards green products (Moser, 2016; Paul et al., 2016), eco-labelling (Miranda-Ackerman and Azzaro-Pantel, 2017; Smith and Brower, 2012), ability and accessibility to buy (Grimmer et al., 2016; Suki et al., 2016).
Some researchers concluded that NGOs, governments and companies are responsible for strengthening the factors that influence consumers’ sustainable consumption behaviour, such as the availability of products or consumer education (Terlau and Hirsch, 2015; Young et al., 2010). Additionally, companies can influence consumers’ buying decisions using different marketing strategies, including cause-related marketing, which is currently getting more attention from managers (Howie et al., 2018; Gupta and Pirsch, 2006). However, even though there is some evidence that this type of marketing might have an effect on purchase behaviour, no studies have attempted to close the green consumption attitude–behaviour gap (Barone et al., 2000).
3. Conceptual model and hypotheses development
According to Ajzen (1991), attitude towards behaviour is the level of positive or negative evaluation of the behaviour and the belief that it might change the outcome. Additionally, attitude towards the environment, in the literature, sometimes called environmental concern, is also found to significantly influence purchase intention (Yadav and Pathak, 2017). This concept of attitude towards the environment is defined as a level of concern by consumers who are aware of environmental problems and are willing to contribute to reducing the negative environmental impact (Hu et al., 2010).
Furthermore, the theory of reasoned action and the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1991; Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975) were criticized for not including contextual variables important in the behavioural decision-making process (Nguyen et al., 2019; Peattie, 2010). As stated in the research conducted by Stern (2000), environmentally significant behaviour involves complexity and contextual variables, such as advertising, habits and social norms. Moreover, green consumption behaviour is determined by both green consumption intention and green consumption attitude (Stern, 2000; Nguyen et al., 2019).
Based on the conceptual research model (Figure 1), the dependent variable (DV) is green consumption behaviour. Independent variables (IVs) include attitude towards the environment, attitude towards green consumption and subjective norms of green consumption. IVs are predicted to have a positive direct effect on sustainable consumption behaviour and consumer green consumption intention, which, in turn, mediates the relationship between IVs and green consumption behaviour. Additionally, the mediation between green consumption intention and green consumption behaviour is moderated by four different types of cause-related marketing. Finally, these variables also moderate the direct relationship between green consumption attitude and green consumption behaviour.
3.1 Hypotheses development
Kilbourne and Pickett (2008) found that consumers who believed in the environmental problem were more concerned that their positive attitude towards the environment was correlated with changes in consumption behaviour, both direct and indirect. These people were more likely to start using paper bags or planting trees in the short term (direct behaviour), while in the long term, their behaviour was more likely to be translated into wider actions – environmental events or marketing and communication campaigns (indirect behaviour) (Kilbourne and Pickett, 2008). A similar study was conducted in the food industry, where the level of education was found to be an important factor that influenced the positive attitude of consumers towards the environment (Panzone et al., 2016). It was found out that people who are more educated can better connect prior information and knowledge of environmental concerns at the time of purchase, as for others, distinction between sustainable and unsustainable products and their effect on the planet is not so clear (Panzone et al., 2016). Also, Yadav and Pathak (2017) analyzed the Indian organic food industry and included additional constructs, such as health consciousness and moral attitude, with the latter being closely related to environmental concern, which, in turn, influences sustainable consumption (Arvola et al., 2008). The results prompt that green consumption is conducted by humans who not only are concerned about their health but also believe in supporting environmental awareness by buying sustainable products (Arvola et al., 2008). Thus, based on the previous studies described above, the first hypothesis is as follows:
The attitude towards the environment has a direct positive effect on the green consumption intention.
Furthermore, while being the main predictor of behavioural intention, the attitude of consumers has been widely analyzed and most sustainable consumption studies revealed that consumers who have a positive attitude towards green consumption are more willing to learn more about green products and start considering them as potential acquisition items (Paul et al., 2016; Sharma and Dayal, 2016). This happens due to the fact that a positive attitude towards green consumption is often in line with their higher concern for the environment and they are likely to buy green products as they expect this will reduce their environmental impact (Gupta and Singh, 2013). This finding is also significantly approved by other authors, who revealed the direct effect between favourable attitude towards green consumption and green consumption intention (Moser, 2016; Ritter et al., 2015; Kim and Chung, 2011). Thus, the following hypothesis is raised involving the attitude and intentions of sustainable consumption:
The attitude towards green consumption has a positive direct effect on the green consumption intention.
Additionally, in Ajzen’s theory of planned behaviour (TPB), subjective norm is also a determinant of purchase intention and is defined as social pressure on a person to behave in a certain way (Ajzen, 1991; Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980). Therefore, considering this concept in the field of sustainable consumption, research calls it subjective norms of green consumption, defined as complying with the opinions of significant others that sustainable consumption and buying green products are favourable to the environment (Kumar et al., 2017). Moreover, in the literature, it has been found that positive opinions about sustainable purchasing by relatives and other acquaintances significantly influence a person’s consideration of green products (Paul et al., 2016; Dean et al., 2012; Han et al., 2010). The main reasoning behind this is the group pressure and positive personal experience, while the significant others might form a group norm and influence others to behave in the same positive way (Paul et al., 2016). Therefore, the following hypothesis is developed:
Subjective norms of green consumption have a positive direct effect on green consumption intention.
In the original Theory of Planned Behavior model proposed by Ajzen (1991), behavioural intention is explained as an immediate determinant of behaviour. In addition to this, the model was further developed and research conducted in different contexts of lodging and food industries, where behavioural intention was chosen as a mediator between attitude, subjective norms and behaviour; moreover, the mediation effect was found to be significant (Yadav and Pathak, 2017; Kim and Hunter, 1993). It can be explained by arguing that a person is more willing to perform certain behaviour when the consumption intention to perform it is stronger (Yadav and Pathak, 2017). Based on the studies discussed above, the following hypotheses (H2a, H2b and H2c) are raised:
The green consumption intention mediates the relationship of attitude towards the environment with green consumption behaviour.
The green consumption intention mediates the relationship between the attitude towards green consumption and the green consumption behaviour.
The green consumption intention mediates the relationship between subjective norms of green consumption and green consumption behaviour.
However, Zsóka (2008) argues that sustainable consumption behaviour might be determined by attitude only when contextual factors, such as habits, lifestyle, etc., favourably affect the relationship. Additionally, even consumers who have a positive attitude towards the environment might find economic barriers to be an obstacle to purchasing green products. The main reason for the barriers is the price premium charged on sustainable products which includes the company’s expenses on sustainable social and environmental activities. In this case, no direct relationship between attitude towards the environment and purchase behaviour can be found (Caird et al., 2008; Gardner and Stern, 2008). In addition to this, Moser (2015) stated that a strong and positive attitude towards the environment influences green purchasing behaviour. However, other academics observed a non-significant effect of attitude towards the environment on green consumption behaviour (Gupta and Ogden, 2009). Thus, based on previous studies, the following hypothesis is raised:
Attitude towards the environment has a direct positive effect on green consumption behaviour.
Furthermore, research studies analyzed the direct effect of attitude towards green purchasing on purchase behaviour. It was found that attitude towards green consumption, as well as environmental attitude, product availability, and social norms and values, is a significant factor determining actual purchase behaviour (Liobikienė and Bernatonienė, 2017; Kumar et al., 2017; Paul et al., 2016; Suki et al., 2016; Biswas and Roy, 2015). According to Liobikienė and Bernatonienė (2017), one-eighth of the green purchase behaviour studies conducted from 2011 to 2017 were conducted on the attitude towards green consumption as a factor determining green consumption behaviour. On the basis of the results, most of the studies approved the significance of the relationship; hence, the following hypothesis is raised:
The attitude towards green consumption has a positive direct effect on green consumption behaviour.
People who are concerned about the environment and have a positive attitude towards green consumption become “significant others” for those who are not already concerned and influence their behaviour (Paul et al., 2016; Moser, 2015). Furthermore, studies conducted in the field of organic food concluded that subjective norms were the main driver influencing green consumption behaviour (Liobikienė and Bernatonienė, 2017; Yazdanpanah and Forouzani, 2015). It could be argued that by buying sustainable goods people are seeking social approval or they are willing to build a better personal image. However, there is also evidence that some consumers do not believe that sustainable consumption and the purchase of green products ensure social approval, therefore, the relationship between attitude towards green consumption and green consumption behaviour was found to be insignificant (Liobikienė and Bernatonienė, 2017; Kumar et al., 2017; Paul et al., 2016; Kumar, 2012). However, the following hypothesis is raised on the basis of most prior research studies:
Subjective norms of green consumption have a positive direct effect on green consumption behaviour.
According to Nguyen et al. (2019), there is a positive relationship between the intention to purchase organic products and actual behaviour when the relationship is moderated by perceived consumer effectiveness, namely the belief that an actual behaviour influences society and environmental goals. Additionally, research concluded that the availability of green products is also a moderator of the positive mediation relationship between sustainable consumption intention and behaviour as the lack of sustainable alternative leads to consumers buying unsustainable products (Nguyen et al., 2019).
Furthermore, Nguyen et al. (2019) conducted the first study that involved additional variables (product availability and perceived consumer effectiveness) with the aim of checking the moderation effect of these variables on the relationship of green consumption intention with behaviour. However, no research has been conducted on the moderated effect of cause-related marketing on the mediated relationship between the green consumption intention and actual green consumption behaviour. Therefore, the following four hypotheses (H4a, H4b, H4c and H4d) involve four novel types of cause-related marketing (sponsorship-linked marketing, transaction-based marketing, cause-related event marketing and cause-related experiential event marketing) as a moderator:
Sponsorship-linked cause-related marketing moderates the mediating effect of green consumption intention on green consumption behaviour, so that people who attend an event sponsored by a cosmetics producer may increase the impact of green consumption intention on green consumption behaviour.
Transaction-based cause-related marketing moderates the mediating effect of green consumption intention on green consumption behaviour, so that people who know that producer donates a certain amount to an environmental charity after every consumer purchase may increase the impact of green consumption intention on green consumption behaviour.
Cause-related event marketing moderates the mediating effect of green consumption intention on green consumption behaviour, so that people who attend an event organized by a cosmetics producer dedicated to an environmental cause may increase the impact of green consumption intention on green consumption behaviour.
Cause-related experiential marketing moderates the mediating effect of green consumption intention on green consumption behaviour, such that people who attend an event organized by a cosmetics producer and dedicated to an environmental cause, as well as actively participate in the event and get acquainted with the problem, may increase the impact of green consumption intention on green consumption behaviour.
Previous research shows the evidence of the effect of various moderators on the direct attitude–behaviour relationship. Dagher et al. (2015) conducted a study and observed a moderating effect of gender, so that the increase of green concern was significant for both males’ and females’ green purchase behaviour. Furthermore, other researchers who analyzed the moderating effect of price sensitivity and country of origin on the willingness to buy green skincare found that these moderators improved the relationship between variables (Hsu et al., 2017). However, as stated previously, the moderating effect of cause-related marketing on the green consumption attitude–behaviour gap is novel in the literature and no research studies have been found. Thus, the following hypotheses (H5a, H5b, H5c and H5d) are raised:
Sponsorship-linked cause-related marketing moderates the direct effect of attitude towards green consumption on green consumption behaviour, such that people who attend an event sponsored by a cosmetics producer and dedicated to an environmental cause may increase the impact of green consumption intention on green consumption behaviour.
Transaction-based cause-related marketing moderates the direct effect of attitude towards green consumption on green consumption behaviour, so that people who know that a producer donates a certain amount to an environmental charity after each consumer purchase may increase the impact of green consumption intention on green consumption behaviour.
Cause-related event marketing moderates the direct effect of attitude towards green consumption on green consumption behaviour, such that people who like and believe in the idea of buying green and attend an event organized by a cosmetics producer dedicated to an environmental cause may increase the impact of green consumption intention on green consumption behaviour.
Cause-related experiential marketing moderates the direct effect of attitude towards green consumption on green consumption behaviour, such that people who attend an event organized by a cosmetics producer and dedicated to an environmental cause, as well as actively participate in the event and get acquainted with the problem, may increase the impact of green consumption intention on green consumption behaviour.
4. Methodology
4.1 Sample and data collection
The target population and its representative sample were decided based on previous studies conducted in the fields of consumer attitude and behaviour (Moser, 2016; Paul et al., 2016) effectiveness of marketing strategies (Lee and Johnson, 2019). Adults (aged 18 and above) were chosen, as they are attributed to the group who have a greater ability to compare choices and make decisions, in addition to purchasing power, which is vital for purchase behaviour analysis (Paul et al., 2016).
Two screening questions were included to ensure a sample of adult consumers who are decision-makers at the point of purchase and have purchasing power.
Furthermore, the level of knowledge and behaviour of green consumption differs between countries; therefore, only Lithuanian respondents were chosen to collect data, which represents attitudes and behaviour of green consumption in the Lithuanian cosmetics industry. A sample size of 241 responses was used for further research analysis.
Data were collected through a structured questionnaire and distributed online. The measurement scales (see Table A1) used in this research were adapted from similar previous studies (Paul et al. (2016) and Matthes and Wonneberger (2014)).
Descriptive statistics showed that 17% of respondents were male and 83% were female. Most of the respondents were aged 24–27 (45%), followed by 28–30-year olds (15%) and 21–23-year olds (11%). Thus, most of the total sample (71%) were participants aged 21–30, with the remaining 3 and 26% of respondents aged 18–20 and over 30 years of age, respectively.
5. Data analysis
Descriptive statistics were applied to summarize the collected data set. The internal consistency and reliability of the scales were checked using Cronbach’s alpha test and the observed homogeneity of the items on the scales was found to be significantly reliable (Table 2). Moreover, Harman’s one-factor test was conducted to assess common method bias. The total variance explained was found to be 37.481%, therefore the common method bias was not observed in the present study. In addition, linear regression assumptions were tested, including normality and multicollinearity. Finally, a regression analysis was performed to examine the relationship between the conceptual model constructs of interest.
5.1 Descriptive statistics
The 5-point Likert scale was used for the measurement of all research variables. Descriptive statistics (Table 3) show that the lowest mean score (2.5705) was calculated for the IV representing the attitude of customers towards the environment, whereas the highest mean score (4.1502) was determined for the IV attitude towards green consumption.
The standard deviation values are in the range of 0.40338–0.94476, indicating a low-variance distribution of all research variables. The marketing of experiential event-related cause-related events by the moderator has the highest standard deviation statistic of 0.94476 and the standard deviation of the attitude of the IV towards the environment is the lowest (0.40338), revealing the lowest variance in the data (0.163). Moreover, all variables, except the attitude of the IV towards the environment, had negative skewness and the distribution of the data concentrated on the right side, meaning agreement. The attitude of the IV towards the environment positively skewed the data, and the right tail of the distribution was a bit longer than the left, indicating that a larger part of the respondents disagreed about having a positive attitude towards the environment.
5.2 Hypothesis testing
The conceptual research model was constructed according to Hayes’ (2013) PROCESS model template number 15. To conduct a deeper analysis and test the pairs of moderators, template number 17 was used. For the interpretation of the results of the hypothesis testing, adjusted R-squared, Student’s t-test and standardized beta coefficients were analyzed.
First, Hayes’ Model 15 was tested using PROCESS macros in the SPSS Statistics software and for this model the independent variable (IV), dependent variable (DV), mediator (M) and moderator (V) were chosen. Later, Hayes’ Model 17 was tested and three different pairs of moderators (V & Q), representing different types of cause-related marketing, were involved in the calculation. Considering this, for the construction of the models, an independent variable (X) was chosen from one of the following variables: attitude towards the environment, attitude towards green consumption or subjective norms of green consumption. For the moderators involved in Model 15, one of the cause-related marketing types was included: sponsorship-linked, transaction-based, cause-related event or cause-related experiential event marketing. Meanwhile, for Model 17, pairs of moderators were formed based on logical assumptions, which of the cause-related marketing types might be combined at a time. The following pairs were chosen: sponsorship-linked marketing and transaction-based marketing (a), transaction-based marketing and cause-related event marketing (b), and transaction-based marketing and cause-related experiential event marketing (c).
Finally, in total, 12 different models were created for the Hayes Model 15 testing (Table 4).
Additionally, nine different combinations of moderator pairs were created for the Hayes’ Model 17 testing (Table 5).
Mediated moderation
The bootstrap confidence interval for all 21 models contained a value of 0, signalling that the mediated moderation is not significant and there is no significantly mediated moderation in any conceptual model of the research.
Moderation
After no significant mediated moderation was observed, moderation effects of all 21 models were checked. However, in only two of the models (Model_7 and Model_8 provided in Figure 2 and Figure 3) were moderation effects found. Thus, these models were chosen for further analysis in which the following covariates were included as well: gender, level of education, social status, income, perceived and actual environmental knowledge, eco products purchase frequency, shopping frequency, noticed eco products advertising, and usage of social media frequency. Also, a more detailed analysis of the moderation effect is provided in the analysis of H4 and H5 (see Tables 6 and 7).
Therefore, after conducting empirical research and testing the hypotheses of 12 different models representing the green consumption attitude–behaviour path and the moderation effect of cause-related marketing, it was found that moderated mediation is non-existent in all models. However, the moderation effect of cause-related events and experiential events was found to be significant for consumers who had a positive attitude towards green consumption. Additionally, to some extent, sponsorship-linked cause-related marketing might also be an effective way to strengthen the relationship between consumers’ attitudes towards green consumption, green consumption intent and actual green purchase behaviour. However, in the models where the gap appeared and consumers had a positive attitude towards the environment, but did not buy green cosmetics products, none of the cause-related marketing types was effective in bridging the gap. Finally, different pairs of moderators were tested with the aim to close the gap and find a significant moderation effect, but no significant relationship was found.
6. Discussion
6.1 Research implications and contribution to the literature
Most of the hypotheses that were raised based on the existing academic literature were supported. Additionally, these novel hypotheses, which involved the moderating effect of cause-related marketing on the relationship of attitude–intention–behaviour, were rejected in 10 of 12 conceptual models.
Furthermore, the hypotheses that were raised based on Ajzen’s Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) and adapted to the field of green consumption were mainly supported. First, in all 12 research models, hypothesis H1 was accepted, which involved the effect of consumer attitude towards the environment or green consumption and subjective norms of green consumption on green consumption intent. This research finding supports the conclusions of Yadav and Pathak (2017) that consumers who have a positive attitude towards the environment and are aware of the environmental impact of consumption will consider buying green products, more specifically cosmetics products.
Moreover, consumers who already believe that green purchasing is valuable and necessary intend to buy green cosmetics products instead of non-organic ones, and this result also contributes to the findings of Paul et al. (2016) and Sharma and Dayal (2016). Finally, the research confirmed previous findings proposed by Kumar et al. (2017), Paul et al. (2016) and Dean et al. (2012) that consumers who consider the opinion of their significant others start considering green cosmetics influenced by the subjective norms of green consumption and willingness to comply with others’ opinions.
Furthermore, this research study contributed to the literature by concluding that green consumption intention significantly mediates the relationship between attitudes towards behaviour, green consumption, subjective norms of green consumption and green consumption behaviour. Hypothesis H2 was previously developed by Ajzen and Madden (1986) and widely used by other authors conducting research on green consumption behaviours (Yadav and Pathak, 2017; Kim and Hunter, 1993).
However, even though Ajzen and Madden (1986) considered intent as an immediate determinant of behaviour, there is some evidence that attitude might have a direct effect on behaviour without intent as a mediator. Many studies failed to support this hypothesis (Gupta and Ogden, 2009), while others succeeded and concluded support for the hypothesis (Moser, 2015; Zsóka, 2008). Therefore, this research raised hypothesis H3, namely that the direct effect of attitude towards the environment, green consumption and subjective norms of green consumption has a significant direct effect on green consumption behaviour. Although attitude towards green consumption and its subjective norms were found as significant determinants of green behaviour, attitude towards the environment had an insignificant effect on behaviour, and the hypothesis was rejected. Thus, it was concluded that consumers who declare being concerned about the environment and believe in protecting it do not necessarily buy green cosmetic products.
Additionally, the inconsistency that appears between the attitude towards green consumption and actual green consumption behaviour contributes to the literature and findings regarding the attitude–behaviour gap of green consumption (Zralek, 2017; Terlau and Hirsch, 2015). Therefore, as the aim of the research was to check the effect of cause-related marketing on the green consumption attitude–behaviour gap, four different types of marketing were introduced: sponsorship-linked marketing, transaction-based marketing, cause-related event marketing and cause-related experiential event marketing.
However, no significant moderation effect of cause-related marketing was found in any of the four conceptual research models where attitude towards the environment directly affected green consumption behaviour. It indicates that negative or neutral concern towards the environment and environmental problems, as well as pessimistic or neutral concern about sustainable consumption, might not be affected by cause-related marketing campaigns and communication. On the contrary, if the consumer has a positive attitude and concern towards green consumption, additional cause-related marketing material might not influence purchasing green products (Singh and Gupta, 2013).
Moreover, if significant others are not aware of the advantages of green consumption and this is not a group norm for them, then they are not likely to create social pressure and encourage others to consume sustainable products (Paul et al., 2016; Han et al., 2010). As a result, the consumer will not be willing to buy green products even while being affected by cause-related marketing. This leads to the conclusion that none of the four different types of cause-related marketing allowed us to close the existing green consumption attitude–behaviour gap. Therefore, even if a cosmetics producer sponsors an environmental event, donates a certain amount of money from every purchase to an environmental charity or organizes an environmental event with or without experiential addition, consumers who are concerned about the environment and have a purchase intention but do not buy green cosmetics products would not be influenced by cause-related marketing and would not buy green cosmetics.
Moreover, even though the green consumption attitude–behaviour gap was not found in the attitude–behaviour consumption path of people who have a positive attitude towards the environment or agree with the opinion of significant others about the necessity of consuming green products, the moderating effect of cause-related marketing was found to be significant in several cases. First, it was found that consumers with a positive attitude towards green consumption purchase actual green cosmetic products if a producer of these products sponsors an environmental event arranged by a charity, another producer, or company. However, those consumers who are still considering the purchase and comparing the options were not influenced by this type of cause-related marketing and would end up buying non-organic cosmetics products.
Additionally, two types of cause-related marketing, cause-related event marketing and cause-related experiential event marketing were found to significantly moderate both the direct effect of attitude towards green consumption and green consumption behaviour, as well as the effect between green consumption intention and green consumption behaviour.
This finding also contributes to the conclusion of Goodwin et al. (2017), who stated that the event’s topic is very important in influencing consumers’ behaviour. The results of the research aligned with the insights of Christofi et al. (2018) that people need to understand their contribution and perceived value. Thus, as this research concluded, people will buy green cosmetics products if the event is dedicated to the environment, and the event informs about the cause and damage done by the non-organic cosmetics industry.
6.2 Managerial implications
Two types of cause-related marketing, that is, cause-related event marketing and cause-related experiential event marketing, were found to have a significant effect on consumers’ attitudes and green purchase intentions that translate into actual purchases of green cosmetics products. Moreover, as it was concluded that this type of marketing does not influence every consumer but those who have a positive attitude towards green consumption, it is vital to understand the attitudes held by the target audience. However, consumers who are concerned about the environment or take the opinion of their friends seriously are not influenced by any cause-related marketing analyzed in the research and will not necessarily buy green cosmetics products, even when considering them before making a final purchase decision. Therefore, to maximize the value of cause-related marketing immediately, only consumers who are already aware of the green purchase advantages and the difference it makes should be targeted.
Additionally, it might be stated that if cause-related event marketing or cause-related experiential event marketing covers these factors with the aim of providing customers with information and tackling the attitude–behaviour gap, a cause-related marketing strategy will be successful and consumers will not only consider or like the idea of purchasing green cosmetics products but will actually buy them.
The main obstacle is that consumers lack green purchase education and understanding of the negative effect of non-organic cosmetics products not on themselves but on nature and the environment. Consequently, environmental education initiated by the producer or seller of green cosmetic products in the form of marketing could increase the group of consumers who have a positive attitude towards green consumption.
Lastly, for consumers who have a positive attitude towards green consumption but start considering and comparing cosmetics before an actual purchase, sponsorship-linked cause-related marketing does not have an influence on actually buying the products. However, for consumers who like the idea of green purchasing and feel proud of this attitude, sponsorship-linked marketing has an effect and consumers, after encouragement, buy green cosmetics products. Therefore, after choosing the right target audience, which was recommended above, sponsorship of an environmental event should be communicated with the aim to show consumers that ecological cosmetics producers contribute to reducing the problem and, as a result, encourage consumers to do the same.
7. Limitations and recommendations
The theory of planned behavior (TPB) and modified Ajzen model (Ajzen and Madden, 1986) were shown to be a significant way of studying the attitude–behaviour gap of green consumption and the effect of cause-related marketing on it. However, there are limitations that should be considered in future research studies. First, the research was carried out during the COVID-19 coronavirus pandemic, which was a major health crisis that caused changes in consumer habits. Respondents stated that at this time they started consuming less, buying different products or ordering online from e-shops that they had never tried before.
Moreover, the research was handled with a sample representing only Lithuanian consumers, so the results may not be generalizable. An increase in sample size and the participation of respondents from other countries might increase the diversity and generalizability of findings; however, it is important to consider the differences in sustainable knowledge among countries.
Additionally, questions about the effectiveness of cause-related marketing were formulated based on factors that cause the gap to appear, such as higher prices, more natural and less effective ingredients, and availability of green products, with the aim of understanding whether and which type of cause-related marketing would allow the effect of factors to be reduced and ensuring consumers’ green products purchase behaviour. However, a deeper analysis of the effect of cause-related marketing on the particular factors which cause the green consumption attitude–behaviour gap to appear might provide understanding about which type of cause-related marketing is the most effective for each of these factors to close the gap. Also, the additional analysis of covariates, such as gender, age and level of environmental knowledge, might provide more insights, and the omitted-variable bias would be avoided.
Moreover, for the current research, the cosmetic industry was chosen. Other industries where there are green versions of products, such as food or automobile, are also worth considering. Also, for future research, other types of cause-related marketing could be chosen, such as “buy one, give one” or point-of-sales campaigns. Hence, alternative hypotheses of the moderating effect of these other techniques should be raised and tested.
Figures
Figure 1
Conceptual research model
Figure 2
Research model with one moderator (Model_7)
Figure 3
Research model with one moderator (Model_8)
Types of cause-related marketing
| Sponsorship-linked marketing | The creation and implementation of marketing activities allows a relationship to be built with customers and, at the same time, creates the association of being a sponsor company (Cornwell, 1995) |
| Transaction-based CRM | Transaction-based cause-related marketing refers to conditional donations when a company donates after the customer makes a purchase (Cornwell and Coote, 2005). In this case, the actions of customers have an impact on the company’s contributions to a cause (Seitanidi and Ryan, 2007) |
| Cause-related event marketing | Actively involves consumers who are willing to engage and share their opinions on sustainability issues (Hessekiel, 2018) |
| Experiential event marketing | Cause-related experiential event marketing is similar to the type described above, but is considered to be more effective because of the stronger experience component (Lee and Kim, 2019). This marketing strategy creates various types of experience (sensory, affective, cognitive, action and relationships) (Schmitt et al., 2010) |
Source(s): Credit: Authors' own work
Scales reliability
| Construct | Cronbach’s alpha | Number of items | Internal consistency |
|---|---|---|---|
| Attitude towards the environment | 0.745 | 5 | Acceptable |
| Attitude towards green consumption | 0.865 | 4 | Good |
| Subjective norms of green consumption | 0.876 | 4 | Good |
| Green consumption intention | 0.944 | 6 | Excellent |
| Green consumption behaviour | 0.738 | 4 | Acceptable |
| Sponsorship-linked marketing | 0.832 | 5 | Good |
| Transaction-based marketing | 0.868 | 5 | Good |
| Cause-related event marketing | 0.915 | 5 | Excellent |
| Cause-related experiential event marketing | 0.924 | 5 | Excellent |
Note(s): Composed by the authors based on the results of the SPSS software
Source(s): Credit: Authors' own work
Descriptive statistics
| Mean | Std. deviation | Variance | Skewness | Kurtosis | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Statistic | Statistic | Statistic | Statistic | Std. Error | Statistic | Std. Error | |
| Attitude towards the environment | 2.5705 | 0.40338 | 0.163 | 0.122 | 0.157 | 0.088 | 0.312 |
| Attitude towards green consumption | 4.1502 | 0.50317 | 0.253 | −0.762 | 0.157 | 1.469 | 0.312 |
| Subjective norms of green consumption | 3.7604 | 0.72593 | 0.527 | −0.572 | 0.157 | 1.218 | 0.312 |
| Green consumption intention | 3.5422 | 0.83094 | 0.690 | −0.966 | 0.157 | 1.537 | 0.312 |
| Green consumption behaviour | 3.2282 | 0.74637 | 0.557 | −0.504 | 0.157 | 0.653 | 0.312 |
| Sponsorship-linked marketing | 3.5228 | 0.76693 | 0.588 | −0.844 | 0.157 | 1.509 | 0.312 |
| Transaction-based marketing | 3.5784 | 0.79825 | 0.637 | −0.857 | 0.157 | 1.152 | 0.312 |
| Cause-related event marketing | 3.3884 | 0.90288 | 0.815 | −0.811 | 0.157 | 0.749 | 0.312 |
| Cause-related experiential event marketing | 3.4664 | 0.94476 | 0.893 | −0.893 | 0.157 | 0.809 | 0.312 |
Note(s): Composed by the authors based on the results of the SPSS software
Source(s): Credit: Authors' own work
Variations of the conceptual research model with one moderator
| MOD SP | MOD TR | MOD EV | MOD EXP | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| IV | ATE | Model 1 | Model_2 | Model_3 | Model_4 |
| ATGC | Model 5 | Model_6 | Model_7 | Model_8 | |
| SNGC | Model 9 | Model_10 | Model_11 | Model_12 | |
Note(s): The dependent variable (DV) in all models was GCB, green consumption behaviour, and the mediator was GCI, green consumption intention. Independent variables (IVs): ATE, attitude towards the environment, and ATGC, attitude towards green consumption. SNGC, subjective norms of green consumption. Moderators: MOD_SP, sponsorship-linked cause-related marketing; MOD_TR, transaction-based marketing; MOD_EV, cause-related event marketing; MOD_EXP, cause-related experiential event marketing. Composed by the authors
Source(s): Credit: Authors' own work
Variations of the conceptual research model with a pair of moderators
| Pair of moderators | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| MOD_SP and MOD_TR | MOD_TR and MOD_ EV | MOD_TR and MOD_EXP | ||
| Pair of moderators | MOD_SP and MOD_TR | Model_13 | Model_14 | Model_15 |
| MOD_TR and MOD_EV | Model_16 | Model_ l7 | Model_ l8 | |
| MOD_TR and MOD_EXP | Model_19 | Model_20 | Model_21 | |
Note(s): Moderators: MOD_SP, sponsorship-linked cause-related marketing; MOD_TR, transaction-based marketing; MOD_EV, cause-related event marketing; MOD_EXP, cause-related experiential event marketing. Composed by the authors
Source(s): Credit: Authors' own work
The hypotheses of conceptual models Model_7
| No. | Formulated hypothesis | Status (accepted or rejected) |
|---|---|---|
| H1b | The attitude towards green consumption has a positive direct effect on green consumption intention | The model is significant (p < 0.0000, adj. R-squared = 0.5955, F(4,241) = 30.6496) The coefficient of the IV attitude towards green consumption is statistically significant (β = 0.6570, t (241) = 12.2355, SE = 0.0537, p < 0.0000) Hypothesis accepted |
| H2b | The intention of green consumption mediates the relationship between the attitude towards green consumption and green consumption behaviour | The model is significant (p < 0.0000, adj. R-squared = 0.4947, F (4,241) = 14.6831) The mediation effect of green consumption intention is statistically significant (β = 0.3365, t (241) = 42,424, SE = 0.0793, p < 0.0000) Hypothesis accepted |
| H3b | The attitude towards green consumption has a positive direct effect on green consumption behaviour | The model is significant (p < 0.0000, adj. R-squared = 0.4947, F (4,241) = 14.6831) The coefficient of the IV attitude towards green consumption is statistically significant (β = 0.1540, t (241) = 2.0940, SE = 0.0735 p < 0.05) Hypothesis accepted |
| H4c | Cause-related event marketing moderates the mediating effect of green consumption intention on green consumption behaviour, so that people who attend an event organized by a cosmetics producer dedicated to an environmental cause do not only consider buying green cosmetics products but actually will do so | The model is significant (p < 0.0000, adj. R-squared = 0.4947, F (4,241) = 14.6831) The interaction (INT × EV) is statistically significant (β = 0.1561, SE = 0.0538, t (4,241) = 2.9013, p < 0.05) Hypothesis accepted |
| H5c | Cause-related event marketing moderates the direct effect of attitude towards green consumption on green consumption behaviour, such that people who like and believe in the idea of buying green and attend an event organized by a cosmetics producer dedicated to an environmental cause do not only like the idea of green purchasing but actually will buy green cosmetics products | The model is significant (p < 0.0000, adj. R-squared = 0.4947, F (4,241) = 14.6831) The interaction (ATGC × EV) is statistically significant (β = 0.2358, SE = 0.0690, t (4,241) = 3.4176, p < 0.05) Hypothesis accepted |
Note(s): Composed by the authors
Source(s): Credit: Authors' own work
The hypotheses of conceptual models Model_7 and Model_8
| No. | Formulated hypothesis | Status (accepted or rejected) |
|---|---|---|
| H1b | Green consumption intention mediates the relationship between subjective norms of green consumption and green consumption behaviour | The model is significant (p < 0.0000, adj. R-squared = 0.5955, F (4,241) = 30.6496) The coefficient of the IV attitude towards green consumption is statistically significant (β = 0.6570, t (241) = 12.2355, SE = 0.0537, p < 0.0000) Hypothesis accepted |
| H2b | The attitude towards the environment has a direct positive effect on green consumption behaviour | The model is significant (p < 0.0000, adj. R-squared = 0.4870, F (4,241) = 14.2408) The mediation effect of green consumption intention is statistically significant (β = 0.3205, t (241) = 4.1271, SE = 0.0777, p < 0.05) Hypothesis accepted |
| H3b | The attitude towards green consumption has a positive direct effect on green consumption behaviour | The model is significant (p < 0.0000, adj. R-squared = 0.4870, F (4,241) = 14.2408) The coefficient of the IV attitude towards green consumption is statistically significant (β = 0.1722, t (241) = 2.3419, SE = 0.0735, p < 0.05) Hypothesis accepted |
| H4d | Subjective norms of green consumption have a positive direct effect on green consumption behaviour | The model is significant (p < 0.0000, adj. R-squared = 0.4870, F (4,241) = 14.2408) The interaction (INT × EXPEV) is statistically significant (β = 0.1461, SE = 0.0529, t (4,241) = 2.7626, p < 0.05) Hypothesis accepted |
| H5d | Sponsorship-linked cause-related marketing moderates the mediating effect of green consumption intention on green consumption behaviour, such that people who attend an event sponsored by a cosmetics producer and dedicated to an environmental cause do not only consider buying green cosmetics products but actually do so | The model is significant (p < 0.0000, adj. R-squared = 0.4870, F (4,241) = 14.2408) The interaction (ATGC × EXPEV) is statistically significant (β = 0.1890, SE = 0.0686, t (4,241) = 2.7553, p < 0.05) Hypothesis accepted |
Note(s): Composed by the authors
Source(s): Credit: Authors' own work
Measurement scales
| Attitude towards the environment | |
|---|---|
| Five items scale | Adapted from |
| I am very concerned about the environment | Paul et al. (2016) (Environmental concern by Paul et al., 2016 – adapted from Kilbourne and Pickett, 2008) |
| I am willing to reduce my consumption to help protect the environment | |
| Major political change is necessary to protect the natural environment | |
| Major social change is necessary to protect the natural environment | |
| Anti-pollution laws should be enforced more strongly | |
| Attitude towards green consumption | |
| Three items scale | Adapted from |
| I like the idea of purchasing green | Paul et al. (2016) (Attitude towards purchasing green products by Paul et al., 2016 – adapted from Chan, 2001) |
| Purchasing green is a good idea | |
| I have a favourable attitude towards purchasing green version of cosmetics products | |
| Subjective norms towards green consumption | |
| Five items scale | Adapted from |
| I feel proud when I buy/use green products | Matthes and Wonneberger (2014) (Attitude towards “green” products by Matthes and Wonneberger, 2014 – adapted from Chang, 2011) |
| Most people who are important to me think I should purchase green cosmetics products when going for purchasing | Paul et al. (2016) (Subjective norm by Paul et al., 2016 – adapted from Dean et al., 2012; Chen and Peng, 2012; Arvola et al., 2008; Sparks et al., 1997) |
| Most people who are important to me would want me to purchase green cosmetics products when going for purchasing | |
| People whose options I value would prefer that I purchase green cosmetics products | |
| My friends’ positive opinion influences me to purchase green cosmetics products | |
| Green consumption intention | |
| Original six items scale | Based on |
| I consider buying green cosmetics products because they are less polluting in coming times | Paul et al. (2016) (Purchase intention for green products by Paul et al., 2016 – adapted from Dean et al., 2012; Chen and Peng, 2012; Arvola et al., 2008; Sparks et al., 1997) |
| I consider switching to environmentally friendly cosmetics brands for ecological reasons | |
| I plan to spend more on environmentally friendly cosmetics products rather than conventional products | |
| I expect to purchase green cosmetics products in the future because of their positive environmental contribution | |
| I want to purchase green cosmetics products in near future | |
| I am likely to choose an organic product the next time I buy cosmetics | |
| Green consumption behaviour | |
| Original four items scale | Based on |
| I make a special effort to buy products in biodegradable packages | Matthes and Wonneberger (2014) (Environmentalism by Matthes and Wonneberger, 2014 – adapted from Roberts, 1996; Shrum et al., 1995) |
| I have switched from my usual brands and buy environmentally safe cosmetic products, even if I had to give up some product’s effectiveness | |
| I have switched products for ecological reasons | |
| When I have a choice between two equal cosmetics products, I purchase the one less harmful to the environment | |
Source(s): Authors' own work adapted from earlier research studies (indicated in the table)
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