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Recent reports suggest that the use of teams in organizations is increasing (Guzzo & Shea, 1992). In fact, many organizations are moving towards team-based approaches, where teams become the centerpiece of organizational structure. As a result of this emphasis on teamwork, it is becoming increasingly important for organizations to become skilled at identifying the task and skill requirements, as well as the cognitive demands of teams and team members. Effective identification of necessary team characteristics can inform several human resource management challenges for teams, including, team design, team training, rewards for team performance, team member selection, and the diagnosis and promotion of team effectiveness.

This paper suggests that one way to increase our understanding of teams is through the use of team task analysis (TTA). TTA is a process of analyzing and describing the tasks of teams and the jobs of team members and can be used to identify the knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs), and attitude requirements relevant to team performance. Despite the obvious importance of TTA, reviews of the literature (Baker, Salas & Cannon-Bowers, 1998; Levine, Penner, Brannick, Coovert & Llobert, 1988) have found very little systematic work on the topic. Further, an examination of traditional job analysis sources (e.g. Gael, 1983; Gael, 1988; Harvey, 1992) revealed twelve pages devoted to TTA (Dieterly, 1988).

Based on the apparent lack of attention given to TTA, one purpose of this paper is to update previous work on TTA, by reviewing and integrating the existing literature. Another purpose of this paper is to offer researchers a foundation for additional theoretical work. Finally, we hope to contribute towards a framework, and/or tool, to aid practitioners in the delivery of human resource management services to teams.

In our review, we provide a comparison of individual task analysis vs. TTA and provide key points of departure between the two concepts. Additionally, a summary of TTA is provided as well as warnings to practitioners and researchers based on previous research and theorizing regarding the aggregation of data (e.g. Bowers, Baker & Salas, 1994; Brenner, Sheehan, Arthur & Bennett, 1998; Kenny & LaVoie, 1985; Klein, Dansereau & Hall, 1994; Rousseau, 1985). In particular, our warnings focus on the potential dangers associated with aggregating individual level information (e.g. individual job analysis data) to higher (e.g. team) levels.

Next, methods that have been used to collect TTA information are reviewed and classified. Then, the type of information gathered, such as, team competencies/skills (e.g. Cannon-Bowers, Tannenbaum, Salas & Volpe, 1995; Stevens & Campion, 1994), job characteristics (e.g. Campion, Medsker & Higgs, 1993; Campion, Papper & Medsker, 1996), and cognitive information (e.g. Brenner et al., 1998; Klein, 1993) are reviewed and categorized. Additionally, comparisons of individual cognitive task analysis (i.e. the mental processes needed to accomplish an individual task) and cognitive TTA (i.e. the integrative team mental processes needed to accomplish a team task) are provided.

We conclude with a presentation of criteria for evaluating TTA methodologies and a series of suggestions to guide both practitioners and researchers regarding future work in TTA. Our emphasis is on explaining the value of TTA and what it means to the reader, regardless of his/her occupation (e.g. practitioner or researcher).

The aim of this paper is to replicate previous research findings, exploring the mediating effect of personal leadership on professional leadership and willing cooperation, and to extend the leadership model to include job satisfaction and organizational commitment.

Employees from a government agency located in Western New York State completed a survey designed to gather their perceptions of study variables.

Professional and personal leadership are positively related to all three outcomes and personal leadership mediates the effect of professional leadership on all three outcomes.

Limitations include predictor and outcome data both collected from the same respondents and all measures collected via survey. Both of these issues raise concerns with regards to common method bias. Actual performance data were not measured. Future research should examine the impact of leadership behaviors on organization outcomes.

Managers should focus on developing both professional leadership (i.e. providing direction, process, and coordination to members) and personal leadership (i.e. demonstrating expertise, trust, caring, sharing and morals) behaviors to enhance employee satisfaction and commitment.

The paper provides confirmatory evidence for the value of the leadership model put forth in the earlier research and extends the model to include other important outcomes. An examination of leader behaviors in a government agency uncovers ways managers can enhance their leadership behaviors.

The purpose of this paper is to replicate previous findings exploring the mediating effect of personal leadership on professional leadership and intentions to cooperate, and to extend the model by examining organizational performance.

Employees from two school districts (one high performing, the other low performing) in New York State completed a survey designed to gather their perceptions of study variables.

Professional and personal leadership are positively related to employee intentions to cooperate, personal leadership mediates the effect of professional leadership on employee intentions to cooperate, and employees in the high-performing organization rated all study variables higher than employees in the low-performing organization.

Limitations include predictor and outcome data both collected from the same respondents and all measures collected via survey. Both of these issues raise concerns with regards to common method bias, though actual performance data was gained from a separate source.

Managers should focus on developing both professional (i.e. providing direction, process, and coordination to members) and personal (i.e. demonstrating expertise, trust, caring, sharing, and ethics) behaviors to enhance.

The current study's findings are compelling and supportive of prior research (Mastrangelo et al., 2004; Eddy et al., 2008). Both professional and personal leadership have an important impact on employee intentions to cooperate, and personal leadership mediates the relationship between professional leadership and employee intentions to cooperate. Leaders should focus on enhancing these behaviors in order to positively impact organizational success. Most compelling is the power of personal leadership. A greater emphasis on expertise, trust, caring, sharing, and ethical behavior in teaching and practicing leadership will undoubtedly lead to more enduring leadership.

The paper provides confirmatory evidence for the value of the leadership model put forth by Mastrangelo et al. (2004) and extends the model to include other important outcomes. An examination of leader behaviors at high-performing organization and low-performing organization uncovers ways managers can enhance their leadership behaviors.

Organizational viability depends in part on effective leadership. Effective leaders engage in both professional leadership behaviors (e.g. setting a mission, creating a process for achieving goals, aligning processes and procedures) and personal leadership behaviors (e.g. building trust, caring for people, acting morally). A model of professional and personal leadership's impact on willing cooperation was developed and tested. Respondents provided perceptions of the leadership of their organizations and reported the extent to which they willingly cooperate with their organization's leadership. Perceptions of “organizational” leadership as opposed to individual leaders were measured. The direct effects of personal and professional leadership on willing cooperation were examined. Personal leadership was also examined as a mediator of professional leadership's impact on willing cooperation. Results revealed support for a mediated model. Specifically, professional leadership was related to the presence of willing cooperation (β=0.44) and personal leadership was related to the presence of willing cooperation (β=0.71). Finally, following a strategy developed by Baron and Kenny, personal leadership was shown to be a mediator of the relationship between professional leadership and the presence of willing cooperation. Limitations as well as research and practical implications are discussed.

The purpose of this paper is to improve assessment and feedback processes in the training practices of very small firms, thereby improving the firms' human capital.

The paper reviews research and practice on effective assessment and feedback.

Based on this paper, human resources are increasingly seen as a potential source of sustained competitive advantage, and well‐trained workers can boost the performance of even very small firms. Hence, a method is provided which very small firms can use to create and implement a structured assessment tool that builds on observation of critical incidents to illustrate the differences between poor, average, and good performance.

The paper shows that readers can use the provided tools to assess and improve employee performance, thereby enhancing their firm's competitive position.

This paper can be used by very small firms to evaluate employee performance and provide employees with both positive and constructive feedback. Additionally, suggestions are provided that allow these firms to use this feedback to effectively set employee performance goals and action plans.