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The paper seeks to disclose the features and implications of the neoliberal VET and employment policy agendas for the social and institutional VET ecosystems and the integration of at-risk youth in the labour market in the Baltic countries.

The research is based on the comparative policy analysis approach with reference to the theories of social and skill formation ecosystems and the historical institutionalism perspective.

The research has revealed three interconnected and alternately/simultaneously applied development pathways in the skill formation and vocational education of at-risk youth in the Baltic countries: (1) the market-oriented approach based on fostering immediate employability based on the momentary skills needs in the economy; (2) the state-assistance approach based on ensuring equal access to the VET and employment services by the state and (3) the approach of systemic support to socially disadvantaged or at-risk young people in developing their capabilities.

The originality of the paper lies in a new, holistic and comparative perspective in analysing the implications of the “Baltic neoliberalism” for the development of skill formation systems, VET and employment of at-risk youth in this region.

Purpose: This chapter analyses the labour market and human capital development in 13 European Union (EU)-adopted countries. It discusses innovative activities for various target groups, addressing demographic challenges and social issues related to labour market developments, highlighting positive experiences and practical solutions for improved human capital development.

Need for study: Demographic challenges, such as ageing societies and information and communication technology (ICT), are causing further stratification in Europe and increasing pressure on human capital development. Positive experiences reduce economic imbalances and achieve sustainability goals in human capital development, including successful application of the ‘silver economy’.

Methodology: Representative data from randomly selected households implemented in all EU and candidate countries using the same Eurostat methodology, and Household Finance and Consumption Surveys conducted in all Eurozone countries, Hungary, and Poland, implemented by national banks and supervised by the European Central Bank, where representative survey data are available for comparative studies.

Findings: Academic researchers are focusing on human capital development for the elderly population, exploring demographic processes and the silver economy to support their labour market involvement. Increased adult education and internet usage in new EU countries show significant income increases, with the highest increase in countries with larger adult education shares. Health issues are also being studied for elderly labour market retention.

Practical implications: This study suggests policy measures to address human capital development issues, particularly in the context of demographic challenges, investing in all age groups, avoiding economic bottlenecks, and preventing burnout to maximise labour market retention. These solutions could enhance Europe’s competitiveness.