Unveiling the failure: a comprehensive analysis of Bangladesh’s war on drugs

Abstract

Purpose

This study aims to evaluate public perceptions of illegal drug availability in Bangladesh amid the ongoing war on drugs while comparing the efficacy of crackdowns with traditional law enforcement strategies.

Design/methodology/approach

Using a quantitative approach, the research analyzes data gathered from 400 participants, including law enforcement officials, students, politicians, community leaders and journalists.

Findings

The findings reveal that illegal drugs continue to be widely accessible in Bangladesh, with 50.15% of respondents acknowledging this despite the government's intensified efforts against drug dealers since 2015. Perceptions of availability are notably higher among those identifying as “other” (66.67%), younger individuals aged 18–28 (55.26%), participants with lower educational levels (76.67% for those with less than SSC education), unmarried respondents (58.86%) and students (60.55%). When assessing enforcement methods, a substantial majority (65.6%) prefer regular law enforcement over violent crackdowns. The survey indicates that all respondents identifying as “other,” along with 73.23% of females, 65.6% of males, 81.82% of participants aged 58–68 and individuals from Khulna (92.65%), Rangpur (96.92%) and Dhaka (51.43%), overwhelmingly favor regular law enforcement compared to crackdowns.

Practical implications

The study emphasizes the urgent need to address the shortcomings of violent anti-drug measures and advocates for a more holistic approach that considers the complex interplay of social, economic and health factors in combating drug abuse in Bangladesh.

Originality/value

This study offers a comprehensive analysis of the relationship between demographic factors and perceptions of drug availability and the effectiveness of violent crackdowns vs regular law enforcement, revealing new insights into this complex sociocultural issue.

Citation

Husain, T. (2024), "Unveiling the failure: a comprehensive analysis of Bangladesh’s war on drugs", Journal of Criminological Research, Policy and Practice, Vol. 10 No. 3/4, pp. 166-179. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCRPP-03-2024-0013

Introduction

The issue of illegal drug use in Bangladesh has emerged as a pressing concern, profoundly impacting individuals, families and the broader societal framework. Drug abuse permeates various aspects of both public and private life, infiltrating homes, workplaces, educational institutions and public spaces such as streets, parks, slums and markets. According to the state-run Drugs Control Agency, approximately seven million individuals in Bangladesh engage in illegal drug use, with young men aged 15−30 making up around 85% of consumers (Uttom and Rozario, 2019; Safi and Rahman, 2018). While adult males dominate the statistics, recent studies reveal an alarming increase in drug consumption among women (Bashar and Vineles, 2019; Islam and Hossain, 2017). The consequences of drug addiction are far-reaching, extending beyond health issues to disrupt family dynamics, escalate social isolation, impose economic burdens and contribute to criminal activity (Moonajilin et al., 2021).

The illicit drug market in Bangladesh is sustained by a complex interplay of geographical, socioeconomic and cultural factors, positioning the country as a significant hub within the regional drug trafficking network (Husain, 2024). Drugs primarily enter Bangladesh from neighboring Myanmar and India, making it a crucial transit point due to its extensive ground, sea and air connectivity (Ahmed, 2019). The 32 border districts of Bangladesh, especially those in hilly regions, serve as vulnerable hotspots for drug trafficking, enabling traffickers to exploit these areas for concealment and transportation (Islam and Hossain, 2017). This illicit trade not only involves substantial financial transactions at border crossings but also engages thousands of Bangladeshis in the distribution and sale of drugs (Rahaman, 2014; Shazzad et al., 2013). Furthermore, Bangladesh's geopolitical location, nestled between the Golden Triangle (Myanmar, Thailand and Laos) and the Golden Crescent (Pakistan, Afghanistan and Iran), heightens its vulnerability to drug trafficking (Rahaman, 2014).

In response to the escalating drug crisis, the Bangladeshi Government launched a war on drugs beginning in 2015, deploying law enforcement agencies to combat the illicit drug trade through deterrence and punitive measures against users, distributors and manufacturers (Safi and Rahman, 2018; The Daily Star, 2018). A pivotal moment in this campaign was the enactment of a stringent anti-drug law in 2018, which introduced severe penalties on individuals involved in the drug trade (Mahtab, 2018). Subsequently, government crackdowns resulted in record-breaking seizures of yaba pills, the arrest of thousands and the controversial deaths of alleged drug dealers during gun battles − actions that have raised serious allegations of extrajudicial killings and prompted concerns regarding the campaign's legitimacy and adherence to human rights (Daud, 2023; Farok and Lee, 2022). These measures have attracted not only domestic scrutiny but also international condemnation from human rights organizations, including the United Nations and the European Union, highlighting the urgent need for a balanced approach that ensures accountability while safeguarding human rights and public health [Human Rights Watch (HRW), 2018; Harm Reduction International and World Coalition Against the Death Penalty (HRI & WCADP), 2019].

In light of these developments, this study investigates public perceptions of drug availability, the impact of crackdown initiatives and the perceived efficacy of law enforcement strategies across diverse demographic groups in Bangladesh. By exploring these issues, the research aims to contribute to the ongoing discourse on effective and humane policy responses to the challenge of illegal drug use within the national context of Bangladesh.

Literature review

The intersection of drug addiction, socioeconomic factors and policy responses in Bangladesh is a vital area of research with profound implications for public health, law enforcement and human rights. This literature review focuses on drug addiction in Bangladesh, exploring the socioeconomic influences on drug use, public perceptions, personal experiences and the effectiveness of existing policies in tackling these pressing issues.

Research on drug addiction in Bangladesh, including studies by Shazzad et al. (2013) and Kamal et al. (2018), emphasizes the widespread availability of various illegal substances, such as opium derivatives and stimulants. Banu's study (2003) indicated that most drug addicts originate from low socioeconomic backgrounds, with many either unemployed or working in low-wage jobs. The research highlights that social and psychological factors − such as family issues, peer pressure and a lack of religious sentiment − significantly contribute to drug use. Notably, 83.5% of respondents identified encouragement from friends as a leading factor in their addiction, while 100% reported frustration as a significant cause (Banu, 2003). These studies reveal the pervasive nature of drug abuse across different demographics and regions, illustrating how socioeconomic disparities and geographic factors influence drug availability and usage patterns. Public sentiment often reflects the frustration of communities grappling with both drug addiction and the violent enforcement tactics used in the government’s “war on drugs” (Islam, 2020; Talukder, 2022). These findings highlight the necessity of considering the experiences of those directly affected by drug addiction and enforcement policies when assessing their effectiveness.

Bangladesh's anti-drug policies have often reflected international strategies, particularly the prohibition and punitive enforcement methods observed in countries like Mexico (Heinle et al., 2016; Treviño-Rangel, 2018), Colombia (Smith et al., 2014; Rincón-Ruiz and Kallis, 2013) and the Philippines (Simangan, 2018). However, critiques from Mahtab (2018) and Islam (2020) argue that these approaches have yielded limited success in curbing drug availability and consumption. Instead, they have exacerbated human rights violations, notably through extrajudicial killings by law enforcement agencies, which complicates the dynamic between public trust and effective policymaking (Devnath, 2019; Gupta and Pokharel, 2018).

Public perceptions of drug addiction in Bangladesh are frequently influenced by societal stigma and a lack of understanding regarding the complexities of addiction. The general populace often regards drug users as criminals rather than individuals in need of assistance, which exacerbates the issue and discourages those affected from seeking treatment. The lived experiences of individuals grappling with addiction highlight a cycle of social isolation and criminal behavior, as many resort to illegal activities to support their habits (Shazzad et al., 2013). Additionally, the experiences of those impacted, coupled with public sentiment regarding the “war on drugs,” reveal a growing disillusionment with the state's approach. This suggests an urgent need for alternative strategies emphasizing harm reduction, rehabilitation and social integration (Filter, 2021).

Global literature, including works by Csete et al. (2016) and the Global Commission on Drug Policy (2014), offers valuable insights into international drug policy reform, particularly in harm reduction and decriminalization. However, their applicability to Bangladesh's distinctive sociopolitical context is limited. The country's restrictive and punitive drug laws, shaped by international conventions since 1961, stand in stark contrast to the more progressive reforms observed in other nations. This discrepancy highlights the necessity for a localized policy approach that reflects Bangladesh’s socioeconomic realities and public attitudes toward drug use and enforcement.

Empirical research, such as the findings by Islam (2020), highlights the disproportionate impact of harsh law enforcement tactics on marginalized communities, further exacerbating socioeconomic inequalities. These results align with broader critiques of international drug policies, which stress the adverse effects of enforcement strategies on disadvantaged groups (Csete et al., 2016). In Bangladesh, the intersection of drug policy and socioeconomic inequality is particularly pronounced, as poverty, unemployment and lack of education are significant drivers of both drug addiction and participation in the drug trade (Shazzad et al., 2013).

While existing literature provides a comprehensive overview of drug policy and enforcement, a focused examination of Bangladesh reveals unique challenges. Understanding the relationship between public opinion, lived experiences and policymaking in the realm of drug addiction demands a comprehensive exploration of how socioeconomic factors and enforcement strategies interact. This study seeks to bridge the research gap by critically evaluating the effectiveness of current prohibition policies in Bangladesh, assessing the socioeconomic influences on drug use and investigating the impact of law enforcement on public trust and policy efficacy.

Methodology

Area selection

The study uses a multistage cluster random sampling approach to compare public opinion and drug availability across Bangladesh's diverse regions. Bangladesh’s nine divisions were divided into strata based on geographic location (central vs remote), with Rangpur, Khulna and Dhaka selected to represent different regions. The study ensures a balanced representation by including urban and rural areas within these divisions, facilitating a comparison of urban vs rural perspectives on drug use and enforcement. Additionally, the sampling method considers population disparities among the divisions, ensuring proportional representation across districts. Stakeholders from six districts −Rangpur, Thakurgaon, Khulna, Jashore, Dhaka and Narayanganj − were included. This methodology is consistent with similar studies in Bangladesh, such as a cross-sectional study on COVID-19 vaccine acceptance in rural Bangladesh (Savira et al., 2022) and a study on life satisfaction determinants among women of reproductive age in Bangladesh (Uthso and Akter, 2022).

Population selection

The study targets stakeholders in the selected districts who are relevant to drug availability and public opinion. This approach enables a comparative analysis of perspectives across various participants (Table 1), including law enforcement officials, community leaders, politicians, students and journalists. A quota sampling method ensured proportional representation from each district, allowing for a regional comparison of public opinion and stakeholder perspectives. The larger population of the Dhaka division compared to Rangpur and Khulna provides for an examination of how population density and urbanization influence views on drug availability and enforcement. While the sampling method was not entirely random, elements of randomness were incorporated within each quota category to ensure an even and fair distribution of participants across groups and districts, enhancing the reliability of the research outcomes.

Sampling

The author used the sampling formula to determine the desired sample: ss = Z² * p * (1 − p)/C² where Z = 1.96 for a 95% confidence level, p = 0.5 and C = 6.6%. The calculated sample size was approximately 384. To ensure sufficient data, the study collected 400 survey responses from the field.

Questionnaire design

The questionnaire facilitated a comparative analysis of perceptions across various regions and demographic groups. It assesses views on drug availability and the effectiveness of law enforcement strategies, enabling a comparison of stakeholder perspectives across urban and rural settings. The questionnaire aims to determine whether strategies like crackdowns or conventional law enforcement are seen as more effective in curbing drug availability. The questionnaire includes a mix of closed-ended, mixed-type and Likert scale questions, with clear definitions for key concepts to ensure consistent understanding.

In this context, “drug availability” refers to the ease of obtaining illegal substances like yaba, phenyl and marijuana. “Crackdown” refers to aggressive law enforcement actions during Bangladesh's war on drugs, including random arrests and extrajudicial killings. “Law enforcement” describes the regular activities of law enforcement agencies, such as patrols and officer deployment, aimed at addressing drug use through standard legal frameworks rather than extrajudicial measures. These definitions were designed to eliminate ambiguity and ensure that responses accurately reflect the respondents' perceptions, thereby improving the reliability and validity of the results.

Ethical consideration

Ethical approval was obtained from the Department of Gender and Development Studies at Begum Rokeya University, Rangpur (BRUR/GDS/Ethics #02062023). Informed consent was obtained from all respondents, who were assured of the confidentiality of their data during collection.

Data analysis method

The chi-square test was used to examine relationships between demographic variables and critical issues such as drug availability and the impact of enforcement actions. This test enables a comparative analysis of how different regions, professions and demographics perceive the outcomes of Bangladesh's drug enforcement strategies. Table 2 outlines each demographic variable's observed and expected frequencies, chi-square statistic values and p-values. If the p-value falls below the predetermined significance level (0.05 in this study), the null hypothesis is rejected, indicating a significant relationship between the variables.

Study limitation

This research faces several limitations, such as the fact that the data was collected from law enforcement personnel, politicians and media professionals, and the sampling method may introduce biases that limit the results' broader applicability. Although the study offers a comparative analysis across selected divisions, its geographic scope is limited to specific districts. Additionally, the reliance on self-reported data introduces potential biases that may affect the comparative validity of the findings across demographic and regional groups. The study is also tailored to the context of Bangladesh's anti-drug campaign, and its conclusions may not apply to other countries or regions facing similar issues. While ethical standards were followed and informed consent was obtained, the topic's sensitive nature may have led to social desirability bias, potentially affecting the accuracy of the responses.

Results and findings

The survey results presented in Table 2 explore the relationship between demographic variables and perceptions of drug availability in Bangladesh. Specifically, it examines how these perceptions correlate with the effectiveness of violent crackdowns compared to regular law enforcement strategies. This analysis aims to provide insights into public attitudes toward drug enforcement policies and their perceived impact on drug accessibility within various demographic groups.

Illegal drug availability

A comparative analysis of drug availability across gender, age, education level, marital status, occupation and geographic location reveals distinct patterns. Perceptions of drug availability were notably higher among individuals identifying as “other” (66.67%) compared to males (50.15%) and females (43.31%). This gender-based comparison suggests that social or demographic factors may influence perceptions of drug access. Similarly, age-related comparisons show that younger respondents, mainly those aged 18–28 (55.26%), report higher drug availability than older age groups, with only 27.27% of those aged 58–68 reporting the same. This suggests that younger populations may have greater exposure to or awareness of drug availability, possibly reflecting social or generational differences.

Educational attainment also appears to influence perceptions, with respondents who have lower educational levels, such as those with less than SSC education, more likely to report drug availability (76.67%) compared to those with higher education levels. This trend indicates that higher educational attainment is associated with a lower perception of drug availability. In terms of marital status, unmarried respondents were more likely to report drug availability (58.86%) compared to married or divorced individuals, suggesting that personal life circumstances may also shape perceptions of drug access.

Occupational differences were evident as well, with students being significantly more likely to report drug availability (60.55%) compared to law enforcers and journalists. This indicates that one's occupation influences how one perceives the prevalence of drugs in society. Additionally, regional variations were prominent, with respondents from Dhaka reporting higher drug availability (65.14%) compared to Khulna (35.12%) and Rangpur (31.58%). This geographic comparison highlights differences in drug distribution across regions, potentially due to factors such as urbanization and the intensity of law enforcement.

Thus, the analysis reveals significant differences in perceptions of drug availability across gender, age, education and geographic regions. Despite these variations, 50.15% of the entire sample reported the presence of illegal drugs, indicating that drug availability is a widespread concern across diverse demographic groups despite ongoing enforcement efforts.

The effectiveness of crackdown vs regular law enforcement.

A comparative analysis of the effectiveness of crackdowns versus regular law enforcement highlights consistent preferences across different demographic variables. For example, a gender-based comparison shows that 100% of individuals identifying as “other” perceive regular law enforcement as more effective, compared to 65.6% of males and 73.23% of females. This variation suggests that gender-specific experiences with law enforcement may influence perceptions of enforcement strategies.

Age-based comparisons reveal that regular law enforcement is viewed as more effective across all age groups, with the most vital support among those aged 58–68 (81.82%) and 28–38 (80%). However, individuals aged 68 and above were less likely to prefer regular law enforcement (50%), indicating potential generational differences in trust or satisfaction with enforcement strategies. These comparisons are essential for identifying which age groups may be more supportive of alternative approaches.

This trend remains consistent across other demographic variables, including educational attainment, marital status, occupation and geographic location. For instance, among those with less than SSC education, 76.67% perceived regular law enforcement as more effective, while only 23.33% favored crackdowns. Similarly, among individuals with SSC or equivalent education, 57.94% preferred regular law enforcement, compared to 42.06% who favored crackdowns. Among graduate-level respondents, 74.09% perceived regular law enforcement as more effective, while 25.91% supported crackdowns.

Regarding marital status, 77.01% of married individuals favored regular law enforcement over crackdowns (22.99%). Among divorced individuals, all respondents (100%) perceived regular law enforcement as more effective. Occupational differences also emerged: 58.98% of students preferred regular law enforcement, while 41.02% supported crackdowns. Among law enforcers, 80.3% favored regular law enforcement, compared to 19.7% who supported crackdowns.

Regional comparisons further reveal significant differences in perceptions of enforcement effectiveness. Respondents from Khulna (92.65%) and Rangpur (96.92%) overwhelmingly supported regular law enforcement over crackdowns. In contrast, the Dhaka region showed a more divided opinion, with 51.43% favoring regular law enforcement and 48.57% supporting crackdowns. These geographic variations suggest that local law enforcement practices, crime rates and sociopolitical factors may influence public opinion on enforcement strategies.

However, most respondents across all groups (65.6%) favored regular law enforcement, reflecting a broad preference for standard policing methods over more aggressive, short-term crackdowns. This pattern aligns with broader public sentiment, indicating dissatisfaction with the harsh tactics of crackdowns and a desire for more sustainable, long-term solutions.

Discussion

The persistent availability of illegal drugs in Bangladesh, despite aggressive law enforcement crackdowns, highlights the limited success of the “war on drugs” strategy in curbing drug supply and accessibility. Empirical evidence shows that a significant portion of the population continues to report easy access to illicit substances. Specifically, 50.15% of male respondents, 43.31% of female respondents and 66.67% of individuals identifying as “other” observed the availability of illegal drugs in their localities, even after police interventions. These findings are consistent with previous research, such as Fry et al. (2012), which showed negligible effects of drug law enforcement on drug prices and availability in the USA. Similarly, the Global Commission on Drug Policy (2011) criticized the “war on drugs” for failing to reduce drug consumption and for exacerbating social and economic harms, including the criminalization of users and worsening health disparities. Together, these studies call into question the effectiveness of punitive drug policies and point to the need for a reevaluation of drug-related strategies.

An important finding in the study is the correlation between educational attainment and reported drug availability. Data indicates that respondents with less than SSC education report a higher prevalence of drug availability (76.67%) compared to their more educated counterparts. This relationship reflects the broader socioeconomic dynamics at play, where individuals with lower educational levels are more likely to encounter illicit drugs due to reduced access to resources and opportunities. Research by Li et al. (2023) and Nerea et al. (2021) supports this, showing that educational achievement significantly influences one's exposure to and perception of drug availability. Lower educational attainment often leads individuals into environments where drugs are more accessible, while higher education provides greater mobility, professional networks and a broader perspective, which may insulate individuals from exposure to drugs (McDonald et al., 2011; Smith, 2021). This complex interplay of education, socioeconomic status and drug exposure emphasizes the critical role of education in shaping encounters with drug availability.

Marital status is another significant factor influencing the reported availability of drugs. Unmarried individuals are more likely (58.86%) to report drug availability compared to their married or divorced counterparts. This finding suggests that marital status affects one's exposure and awareness of drugs. Unmarried persons may have social networks more prone to drug-related activities (McDonald et al., 2011), and factors such as loneliness, isolation or stress, which are known risk factors for drug use, maybe more prevalent among them (Liu et al., 2020). Additionally, these people are more likely to live in areas with higher drug prevalence, whereas married couples often prioritize safer neighborhoods for family living (Tung et al., 2018). This protective social framework found in marriage or committed relationships may play a role in reducing exposure to drug-affected environments, influencing how individuals perceive and report drug availability in their communities.

Students, as a demographic group, report a significantly higher likelihood of encountering drug availability (60.55%) compared to law enforcers, journalists and community leaders. Several factors contribute to this trend. The age demographic of students aligns with the peak period for drug experimentation, and their immersion in social environments − such as peer groups − facilitates direct observation or experience with drugs. Moreover, students may feel less constrained by professional obligations or the potential consequences of reporting drug-related activities, unlike law enforcers or journalists, who may be more cautious due to the impact on their careers. Studies also indicate a higher incidence of drug abuse among students in Bangladesh (Sujan et al., 2021; Ahmed and Ahmed, 2019), further highlighting their unique position within the landscape of drug exposure. These findings point to the need for targeted interventions within the student population to address drug-related issues and prevent further escalation.

A key finding from the survey data is the widespread public consensus that regular law enforcement strategies are more effective than crackdowns in curbing drug availability. This preference is consistent across various demographic categories, including gender, age, education, marital status, occupation and geography. The study found that most respondents, especially in regions like Khulna (92.65%) and Rangpur (96.92%), favor continuous, consistent policing methods over sporadic, high-intensity crackdowns. This finding aligns with previous research highlighting the importance of procedural fairness and community relations in building public trust and cooperation with the police. Studies have shown that perceptions of police integrity, use of force and impartiality are closely linked in the public mind. Events that shape evaluations of police impartiality or integrity may also color perceptions of police effectiveness (Melkamu and Teshome, 2023). This collective viewpoint emphasizes the importance of sustained law enforcement efforts in addressing drug-related issues, highlighting the limitations of one-off, heavy-handed approaches.

Policy implementation

Addressing the persistent drug problem in Bangladesh requires a multifaceted strategy that balances public health, human rights and effective law enforcement. The relationship between the public and law enforcement is central to this challenge, as the public's trust in these institutions is pivotal for successfully implementing any drug policy. However, this relationship is fraught with complexities, especially concerning human rights abuses, corruption and unaccountability within law enforcement agencies. Allegations of excessive force, extrajudicial killings and corruption have undermined public confidence, making it harder to combat drug-related issues effectively (Grant, 2018; Pardo, Kilmer and Huang, 2019).

Efforts to strengthen law enforcement in Bangladesh have been made, including initiatives supported by the Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (BINLEA, 2019), which aim to enhance the capacity of Bangladeshi civilian security forces to combat transnational crime. Partnerships like the one between the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC, 2020) and the Bangladesh Police focus on fostering community policing strategies emphasizing inclusiveness, trust-building and cooperation between the police and local communities (UNODC, 2023). These strategies aim to address the root causes of violent extremism and improve public and law enforcement relations.

Despite these positive steps, negative perceptions of law enforcement, fueled by experiences of corruption, bias, abuse of power and unresponsiveness (Rahman and Hossain, 2017), remain a significant obstacle. These issues tarnish law enforcement's image and severely undermine its effectiveness in maintaining public order and safety. Building trust between law enforcement and the public is crucial. Therefore, comprehensive reforms are needed to promote transparency, accountability and respect for human rights within law enforcement agencies. This includes combatting corruption, preventing extrajudicial killings and ensuring that all members of law enforcement receive adequate training in human rights principles.

The challenges of drug use and enforcement extend across South Asia, with countries like Bhutan, India, Nepal and Pakistan grappling with similar issues. Bhutan's Anti-Corruption Commission has focused on combating corruption within law enforcement (Venard and Tshering, 2021). India's Narcotics Control Bureau emphasizes the need for integrity and accountability in battling drug trafficking and abuse (Verma and Sharma, 2019). Nepal has taken steps to address drug-related issues through treatment centers and the enactment of the Narcotic Drugs Control Act (Pathak et al., 2022). Meanwhile, Pakistan's Anti-Narcotics Force is bolstering law enforcement capabilities and fostering international cooperation to tackle drug trafficking (Jamshed and Bakhsh, 2024). These countries share similar strategies, such as emphasizing community policing in Bangladesh, Bhutan and India to enhance trust and communication between law enforcement and communities. Nepal prioritizes the integrity of its criminal justice institutions, whereas Pakistan underscores the importance of international cooperation. While approaches have similarities, each country’s policy response is tailored to its unique context.

Globally, drug enforcement strategies vary widely. For instance, Portugal's decriminalization and harm reduction approach treats drug use as a public health issue rather than a criminal one (Walmsley, 2019). This strategy aims to integrate individuals who use drugs into supportive systems rather than criminalizing them, recognizing that drug use may be part of a lifestyle choice for some. In contrast, the Philippines has adopted a punitive approach characterized by extrajudicial killings, viewing drug use primarily through a criminal lens (Tibus, 2022). These contrasting strategies highlight the need for Bangladesh to carefully evaluate its drug policies and adapt them based on evidence and the needs of its population.

At the same time, policymakers must recognize that drug use can be perceived through various lenses. While drug use is often framed as a negative behavior in public policy, some individuals may engage in drug use as part of personal or cultural practices. A more inclusive and balanced approach to drug policy should consider these diverse perspectives, aiming not only to mitigate the harmful effects of drug use but also to address its root causes. Understanding drug use as a multifaceted issue, rather than purely criminal, could lead to more compassionate and effective interventions. Ultimately, addressing drug abuse in Bangladesh will require a comprehensive and humane approach. Policymakers should heed the calls of the United Nations, human rights organizations and public health experts to end extrajudicial killings, abolish the death penalty for drug-related offenses and shift toward evidence-based interventions that prioritize public health. Only by putting people first and respecting human rights can Bangladesh make meaningful progress in reducing the harms of drug abuse and fostering a safer, more just society.

Conclusion

This paper explores the complexities of illegal drug use in Bangladesh, presenting findings that question the effectiveness of the current “war on drugs” in curbing illicit drug supply and consumption. The analysis reveals a significant relationship between demographic and regional factors − such as age, education, marital status, occupation and geographic location − and their influence on drug availability, law enforcement actions and the legal consequences of drug abuse. The study emphasizes that these factors contribute to variations in drug-related issues and necessitate a more profound understanding for more effective intervention.

This research critiques existing anti-drug strategies, advocating for a more holistic approach to address drug abuse. There is growing support for comprehensive, evidence-based and socially informed drug control policies to address the diverse aspects of drug abuse. Policymakers, government bodies and law enforcement agencies are increasingly encouraged to integrate these dimensions into their strategies to develop more effective interventions.

Furthermore, there is a broader recognition of the need to incorporate a human rights perspective into drug enforcement tactics. This approach enhances the discussion on creating more effective policies and offers a foundational framework for future research. By reflecting on the multifaceted nature of drug abuse and the widespread concerns about current enforcement strategies, this study echoes calls from scholars, researchers and policymakers for solutions that address root causes while respecting human rights.

Table 1

Categories of the respondents

Categories	Stakeholders
Law and enforcement group	Bangladesh Police
	Border Guard Bangladesh (BGB)
Mass people	Politicians
	Local elites
	Social influential (retired officials/teachers/Imam)
	Businessman
	Graduate students
Journalists	Local and national journalists

Source: Authors’ own work

Table 2

Demographic variables and their association with drug availability, crackdown effect and effect of strict law

Variables	n (%)	Drug availability			Crackdown effect			Law effect
		Normal and mild (%)	Least moderate (%)	p-value*	Normal and mild (%)	Least moderate (%)	p-value*	Normal and mild (%)	Least moderate (%)	p-value*
Gender
Male	243 (57.2)	122 (50.15)	121 (49.85)	0.023	83 (34.4)	160 (65.6)	0.001	183 (73.76)	60 (26.24)	0.000
Female	154 (42.3)	67 (43.31)	87 (56.59)		33 (26.77)	110 (73.23)		101 (66.14)	42 (33.86)
Others	3 (0.5)	2 (66.67)	1 (33.33)		1 (33.33)	2 (66.67)		3 (100)	0 (0)
Age (years)
18–28	260 (65)	143 (55.26)	117 (44.74)	0.000	97 (36.05)	163 (63.95)	0.024	198 (79.21)	62 (20.79)	0.000
28–38	45 (11.3)	16 (35.56)	29 (64.44)		9 (20)	36 (80)		26 (57.78)	19 (42.22)
38–48	48 (12)	11 (34.62)	37 (65.38)		7 (25.64)	41 (74.36)		28 (55.13)	20 (44.87)
48–58	34 (8.5)	10 (28.21)	24 (71.79)		7 (23.08)	27 (76.92)		19 (53.85)	15 (46.15)
58–68	11 (2.8)	3 (27.27)	8 (72.73)		2 (18.18)	9 (81.82)		6 (54.55)	5 (45.45)
68 & above	2 (0.5)	1 (50)	1 (50)		1 (50)	1 (50)		1 (50)	1 (50)
Educational attainment
Under SSC	16 (5.3)	4 (23.33)	12 (76.67)	0.001	1 (6.67)	15 (93.33)	0.001	10 (63.33)	6 (36.67)	0.000
SSC or equivalent	22 (7.3)	5 (20.45)	17 (79.55)		3 (11.36)	19 (88.64)		9 (43.18)	13 (56.82)
HSC or equivalent	13 (4.3)	7 (50.79)	6 (49.21)		5 (42.06)	8 (57.94)		10 (76.19)	3 (23.81)
Graduate	147 (49)	78 (53.04)	69 (46.96)		49 (33.6)	98 (66.4)		103 (74.09)	44 (25.91)
Post graduate	78 (26)	37 (50)	37 (50)		24 (29.66)	54 (70.34)		56 (72.88)	22 (27.12)
Doctorate	20 (6.7)	8 (40)	12 (60)		6 (24)	14 (76)		12 (60)	8 (40)
Post doctorate	4 (1)	2 (50)	2 (50)		1 (25)	3 (75)		2 (50)	2 (50)
Marital status
Unmarried	216 (52.7)	126 (58.86)	90 (41.14)	0.000	88 (40.19)	192 (59.81)	0.000	187 (81.33)	29 (18.67)	0.000
Married	161 (43.5)	58 (37.55)	103 (62.45)		30 (22.99)	131 (77.01)		98 (61.3)	63 (38.7)
Divorced	13 (2.2)	0 (0)	13 (100)		0 (0)	13 (100)		4 (30.77)	9 (69.23)
Widowed	10 (1.7)	0 (0)	10 (100)		0 (0)	10 (100)		3 (30)	7 (70)
Occupations
Students	156 (42.7)	95 (60.55)	61 (39.45)	0.000	65 (41.02)	91 (58.98)	0.000	125 (83.98)	31 (16.02)	0.021
Common mass	154 (42.3)	56 (37.8)	98 (62.2)		39 (23.23)	115 (76.77)		97 (61.81)	57 (38.19)
Law enforcers	66 (11)	21 (31.82)	45 (68.18)		13 (19.7)	53 (80.3)		32 (48.48)	34 (51.52)
Journalist	24 (4)	12 (50)	12 (50)		10 (41.67)	14 (58.33)		20 (83.33)	4 (16.67)
Geographical context (Division)
Dhaka	175 (58.3)	114 (65.14)	61 (34.86)		90 (51.43)	85 (48.57)		143 (81.71)	32 (18.29)
Khulna	60 (20)	45 (80.88)	15 (19.12)		37 (64.71)	23 (35.29)		51 (92.65)	9 (7.35)
Rangpur	65 (21.7)	40 (61.54)	25 (38.46)		16 (24.62)	49 (75.38)		63 (96.92)	2 (3.08)

Note:

*The chi-square statistic is significant at p < 0.05 level

Source: Authors’ own work