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The purpose of this paper is to examine how the expansionary phase of a business cycle driven by an exogenous commodity price shock (oil) affects R&D expenditures among Ecuadorian firms.

Using two rounds of the Ecuadorian National Science, Technology and Innovation Activities Survey (ACTI 2012 and 2015) and a data set on gross value added (GVA) by industry, we run a sample correction model applied to a panel data of 1,023 firms from 2009 to 2014.

In deciding whether to invest in R&D, the higher an industry’s GVA, the lower the predicted probability that firms in that industry would invest. Additionally, R&D investments are not procyclical, and there is marginal evidence that they might actually be countercyclical. These findings are consistent with Schumpeter (1939) and Ouyang (2011) and are likely due to an increased opportunity cost of R&D investment during the oil boom.

In this study, we examine a boom period and not a full business cycle. This boom is driven by an exogenous shock, deviating from much of the current literature, which focuses on endogenously driven business cycles. This paper examines how the oil shock impacted a variety of industries, and not just attractive ones. Additionally, this paper adds to the limited literature around R&D and business cycles in Latin America.

El objetivo de este trabajo es examinar cómo la fase de expansión del ciclo económico, impulsada por un choque exógeno en los precios de un producto básico (petróleo), afecta al gasto en I + D de las empresas ecuatorianas.

Usando dos rondas de la Encuesta Nacional de Actividades de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación (ACTI 2012 and 2015) y una base de datos del valor añadido bruto (VAB) por industrias, se estima un modelo de corrección de muestra aplicado a un panel de 1,023 empresas de 2009 a 2014.

En cuanto a la decisión de invertir o no en I + D, mientras mayor es el VAB de una industria, menor es la probabilidad pronosticada de que las empresas inviertan en I + D. Adicionalmente, la inversión en I + D no es procíclica, y de hecho encontramos evidencia marginal de que muestra un comportamiento contracíclico. Estos resultados son consistentes con Schumpeter (1939) y Ouyang (2011) y se explican posiblemente por un incremento en el costo de oportunidad de invertir en I + D durante la bonanza petrolera.

En nuestro estudio examinamos un periodo de auge, y no un ciclo económico completo. Dicho auge fue ocasionado por un choque exógeno en los precios del petróleo, lo cual diferencia el análisis de gran parte de la literatura actual, enfocada en ciclos económicos endógenos. Este trabajo examina cómo la bonanza petrolera impactó a distintas industrias, y no únicamente a las extractivas. Nuestro estudio contribuye a la escasa literatura existente sobre la relación entre el gasto en I + D y los ciclos económicos en Latinoamérica.

O objetivo deste artigo é examinar como a fase de expansão de um ciclo de negócios impulsionada por um choque exógeno de preços de commodities (petróleo) afeta os gastos com P and D entre as empresas equatorianas.

Utilizando duas rodadas da Pesquisa Nacional Equatoriana de Atividades de Ciência, Tecnologia e Inovação (ACTI 2012 and 2015) e um conjunto de dados sobre o valor agregado bruto (VAB) por indústria, aplicamos um modelo de correção de amostra aplicado a um painel de 1.023 empresas de 2009 a 2014.

Ao decidir investir ou não em P and D, quanto maior o VAB de uma indústria, menor a probabilidade prevista que as empresas dessa indústria investiriam. Além disso, os investimentos em P and D não são pró-cíclicos, e há evidências marginais de que eles podem realmente ser contracíclicos. Essas descobertas são consistentes com Schumpeter (1939) e Ouyang (2011) e são provavelmente devidas a um maior custo de oportunidade de investimento em P and D durante o boom do petróleo.

Em nosso estudo, examinamos um período de expansão e não um ciclo completo de negócios. Esse boom é impulsionado por um choque de petróleo exógeno, diferenciando-se de grande parte da literatura atual, que se concentra em ciclos de negócios impulsionados endogenamente. O artigo examina como o choque do petróleo impactou diversas indústrias, e não apenas as extrativistas. Além disso, nosso trabalho contribui para a escassa literatura em torno de P and D e ciclos de negócios na América Latina.

The purpose of this paper is to analyze the effect of competition on both innovation inputs and outputs in Chilean firms. More specifically, the authors investigate whether there is an inverted-U relationship at different stages of the innovation process.

The sample covers 1,347 firms that responded to both the 4th Chilean Longitudinal Enterprise Survey and the 10th Chilean Innovation Survey. The CDM model (Crépon et al., 1998) is applied to correct for selectivity bias and endogeneity. Competition is proxied by measures of market concentration. The robustness of the results is checked using four alternative indicators.

The results strongly suggest that competition and both R&D and innovation intensities are linked by an inverted U-shaped curve. The estimated effects of competition on innovation output and labor productivity are rather ambiguous. Thus, market structure would be influencing the firms’ incentives to innovate, but not necessarily their innovation performance.

The model is based on cross-sectional data, hampering the possibility to control for unobserved heterogeneity. Competitive pressures from potential entrants and foreign markets are not captured in the analysis.

Moderate levels of competition would be the optimal market structure in terms of promoting more business R&D and innovation spending.

A previously unutilized data set covering the whole economy is used. Estimations are executed at three different stages of the innovation process. Two types of innovation input and four types of innovation output are taken into account.

El objetivo de este artículo es analizar los efectos de la competencia sobre los insumos y los productos de la innovación en empresas chilenas. Más específicamente, los autores investigan si existe una relación en forma de U invertida en diferentes etapas del proceso de innovación.

La muestra abarca 1.347 empresas chilenas que respondieron la 4ª Encuesta Longitudinal de Empresas y la 10ª Encuesta Nacional de Innovación. El modelo CDM (Crépon et al., 1998) es aplicado con el fin de corregir por sesgo de selección y endogeneidad. La competencia es representada por medidas de concentración de mercado. La robustez de los resultados es verificada usando cuatro indicadores alternativos.

Los resultados sugieren claramente que la competencia y las intensidades de I+D e innovación están vinculadas por una curva en forma de U invertida. Los efectos estimados de la competencia sobre la producción de innovación y la productividad laboral resultan ser más bien ambiguos. Así, la estructura de mercado estaría influyendo en los incentivos de las empresas para innovar, pero no necesariamente en los resultados del proceso de innovación.

El modelo se basa en datos de corte transversal, dificultando la posibilidad de controlar la heterogeneidad no observada. Las presiones competitivas de potenciales entrantes y mercados extranjeros no se reflejan en el análisis.

Niveles moderados de competencia serían la estructurada de mercado óptima para promover un mayor gasto en I+D e innovación en el sector empresarial.

Se usa un conjunto de datos no utilizado previamente y que cubre toda la economía. Las estimaciones se realizan en tres etapas diferentes del proceso de innovación. Se tienen en cuenta dos tipos de insumos de innovación y cuatro tipos de resultados de innovación.

Competencia, I+D, Innovación, Productividad, Chile

Trabajo de investigación

O objetivo deste artigo é analisar os efeitos da competição nos insumos e produtos de inovação em empresas chilenas. Mais especificamente, os autores investigam se existe uma relação na forma de um U invertido em diferentes estágios do processo de inovação.

A amostra inclui 1.347 empresas que responderam a 4ª Pesquisa Longitudinal de Empresas e 10ª Pesquisa Nacional de Inovação. O modelo CDM (Crépon et al., 1998) é aplicado para corrigir o viés de seleção e endogeneidade. A competição é representada por medidas de concentração de mercado. A robustez dos resultados é verificada usando quatro indicadores alternativos.

Os resultados sugerem claramente que a competição e as intensidades de P&D e inovação estão ligadas por uma curva em U invertido. Por sua vez, os efeitos estimados da concorrência na produção de inovação e na produtividade do trabalho revelam-se bastante ambíguos. Assim, a estrutura de mercado estaria influenciando os incentivos das empresas para inovar, mas não necessariamente nos resultados do processo de inovação.

O modelo é baseado em dados transversais, dificultando o controle da heterogeneidade não observada. As pressões competitivas de concorrentes potenciais e mercados estrangeiros não são refletidas na análise.

Níveis moderados de concorrência seriam a estrutura de mercado ideal para promover maior gasto em P&D e inovação no setor empresarial.

Este artigo usa um conjunto de dados anteriormente não utilizado e que abrange toda a economia. As estimativas são feitas em três etapas diferentes do processo de inovação. Dois tipos de insumos de inovação e quatro tipos de resultados da inovação são considerados.

Competição, P&D, Inovação, Produtividade, Chile

Trabalho de investigação

As high-tech industries are the main responsible for research and development (R&D), the purpose of this paper is to investigate some of the possible determinants of R&D investment in this type of industry.

The analysis is based on a sample of European high-tech industries represented both by countries of civil law origin and common law origin. The authors used data from 155 high-tech firms in the period between 2011 and 2016. The sample was collected from Amadeus database. The panel data methodology was used to test the dependence of R&D expenses ratio according to different variables. Specifically, the authors have used the generalized method of moments (GMM) estimation method.

The results point out that there are differences in the explanation of the R&D ratio depending on whether the authors are dealing with countries of civil legal origin or common legal origin. The evidence also suggests that the intangible assets, contrary to the expect result, have a negative influence on R&D. Probably in this recovery time, as de global financial crisis and the sovereign debt crisis for Eurozone countries, the high-tech firms are using their intangible assets to create value and not for more investments in R&D. Companies are not renewing their asset stocks.

As high-tech companies are traditionally rich in R&D, this research can contribute with additional pieces to the knowledge of the factors that contribute to this. Thereby, this study may be interesting for managers, investors and civil society. This study adds value as it is unique in addressing this topic on this new dimension, with respect to the sample and indicators presented.

Como las industrias de alta tecnología son las principales responsables por la I + D, proponemos investigar algunos de los posibles determinantes de la inversión en I + D en este tipo de industria.

Nuestro análisis se basa en una muestra de indústrias europeas de alta tecnología representadas tanto por países de origen civil como por derecho consuetudinario. Utilizamos datos de 155 empresas de alta tecnología en el período comprendido entre 2011 y 2016. Nuestra muestra se recopiló de la base de datos Amadeus. La metodología Panel Data se utilizó para evaluar la dependencia del índice de gastos de I + D de acuerdo con diferentes variables. Específicamente, hemos utilizado el método de estimación del Método Generalizado de Momentos (GMM).

Nuestros resultados señalan que existen diferencias en la explicación de la relación de I + D dependiendo de si estamos tratando con países de origen legal civil u origen legal común. Nuestra evidencia también sugiere que los activos intangibles, al contrario del resultado esperado, tienen una influencia negativa en la I + D. Probablemente en este tiempo de recuperación económica, desde la crisis financiera mundial y la crisis de la deuda soberana para los países de la zona euro, las empresas de alta tecnología están utilizando sus activos intangibles para crear valor y no para más inversiones en I + D. Las empresas no renuevan sus activos.

Dado que las empresas de alta tecnología son tradicionalmente ricas en I + D, esta investigación puede contribuir con piezas adicionales al conocimiento de los factores que contribuyen a esto. Por lo tanto, este artículo puede ser interesante para gerentes, inversores y la sociedad civil. Este artículo agrega valor, ya que es único al abordar este tema en esta nueva dimensión, con respecto a la muestra y los indicadores presentados.

Como as indústrias de alta tecnologia são as principais responsáveis pela investigação e desenvolvimento, neste trabalho propomos investigar alguns dos possíveis determinantes da I&D nesse tipo de indústria.

A Nossa análise é baseada em uma amostra de indústrias europeias de alta tecnologia representadas por países de origem do direito civil e de direito comum. Foram utilizados dados de 155 empresas de alta tecnologia no período compreendido entre 2011 e 2016. Os dados foram recolhidos da base de dados Amadeus. Foi usada a metodologia de Dados em Painel para testar a dependência entre as despesas de I&D e as diferentes variáveis explicativas. Especificamente, usamos o método de estimação Método generalizado de momentos (GMM).

Os nossos resultados apontam que existem diferenças na explicação do índice de I&D, dependendo de estarmos lidando com países de origem legal civil ou de origem legal comum. As evidências também sugerem que os ativos intangíveis, ao contrário do resultado esperado, influenciam negativamente a I&D. Provavelmente neste período de recuperação económica, desde a crise financeira global e a crise da dívida soberana dos países da zona do euro, as empresas de alta tecnologia estão a usar os seus ativos intangíveis para criar valor e não para mais investimentos em I&D. As empresas não estão a renovar os seus ativos.

Como as empresas de alta tecnologia são tradicionalmente ricas em I&D, este trabalho pode contribuir com peças adicionais para o conhecimento dos fatores que contribuem para esse facto. Assim, este artigo pode ser interessante para gestores, investidores e sociedade civil. Trata-se de uma investigação que agrega valor, pois é único ao abordar este tópico nesta nova dimensão, com relação à amostra e às variáveis apresentadas.

We present a critical literature review debating Brazilian research on social and environmental accounting (SEA). The aim of this study is to understand the role of politics in the construction of hegemonies in SEA research in Brazil. In particular, we examine the role of hegemony in relation to the co-option of SEA literature and sustainability in the Brazilian context by the logic of development for economic growth in emerging economies. The methodological approach adopts a post-structural perspective that reflects Laclau and Mouffe’s discourse theory. The study employs a hermeneutical, rhetorical approach to understand and classify 352 Brazilian research articles on SEA. We employ Brown and Fraser’s (2006) categorizations of SEA literature to help in our analysis: the business case, the stakeholder–accountability approach, and the critical case. We argue that the business case is prominent in Brazilian studies. Second-stage analysis suggests that the major themes under discussion include measurement, consulting, and descriptive approach. We argue that these themes illustrate the degree of influence of the hegemonic politics relevant to emerging economics, as these themes predominantly concern economic growth and a capitalist context. This paper discusses trends and practices in the Brazilian literature on SEA and argues that the focus means that SEA avoids critical debates of the role of capitalist logics in an emerging economy concerning sustainability. We urge the Brazilian academy to understand the implications of its reifying agenda and engage, counter-hegemonically, in a social and political agenda beyond the hegemonic support of a particular set of capitalist interests.

“Consumerism”, for want of a better description, is given to the mass of statutory control (which shows no sign of declining) of standards, trading justice to the consumer, means of redress to those who have been misled and defrauded, advice to those in doubt; and to the widespread movement, mostly in the Western world, to achieve these ends.

Given its social importance, Sport (especially Football), which has experienced an astounding transformation into a global industry with significant economic impact, has been a vehicle for the transmission of cultural and universal values. Its structural complexity (players, transfer agents, clubs and its owners, right holders of different contracts) creates a lot of moving parts that can easily hide illicit activity, especially because this structure incorporates the international market. The movement of large amounts of money, the difficulty in accounting for all transactions, and ironically, the clubs’ own financial needs increase this sector’s vulnerability to organized crime. For many years, this sector has had a relatively free hand in its efforts to make criminal assets legal. This is made possible by some ineffectiveness of current national and international laws and enforcement bodies, which have not kept pace with the changing situation. It is already known that sport historically has been used as a tool for enrichment of a specific group of companies, an issue deserving of public concern. This chapter argues for a sensitive situation involving the actors of the public and private sectors, notably its regulations, in order to curb corruption and money laundering through sport. The purpose is to address these matters by identifying the risks of misconduct within sport organizations, and proposing measures that could prevent, hamper, and punish any attempts to thwart these organizations’ main goal: promoting sport as a way for cultural improvement and teaching people the values of tolerance and civilized coexistence.

This piece of research provides an overview on supplementary education in Brazil based on the available literature.

Literature review.

In a country plenty of social and educational contrasts, student failure and high repetition rates in basic education are the main factors of supplementary education flourishing. Additional factors are the quick expansion of access at all levels of schooling and the ascension of a new lower middle class that can afford to pay for supplementary tutoring. Tutors at their homes and in small offices are still one of the most common means for students who want to overcome their difficulties and improve their knowledge and skills. However, franchising outlets have grown since the 1980s and in particular the 1986 with the winds of globalization. Their most important branches are foreign languages and preparatory courses, especially for college entrance and public servant selection examinations. This branch of business has been financially very attractive for entrepreneurs. Official data on family budget show that families spend each year a significant amount of resources, impacting the sophistication and complexity of the supplementary education market. In sum, supplementary education is a result of quality deficiencies and inequity. At the same time, it increases the lack of equity between students from different human capital backgrounds.

Main limitation is that research on supplementary education in Brazil is still recent and scarce. On the other hand, till now, no public policy has paid attention to this phenomenon.

Public policy, research, and evaluation fields must consider the phenomenon of supplementary education in Brazil as an important variable contributing to inequity and to academic performance. This chapter calls attention to the need of increasing research on this issue.

As it is more valued and easily available to relatively more privileged social groups, supplementary education in Brazil contributes to increasing education inequity.

This chapter contributes to improving knowledge on supplementary education in Brazil, and its causes and implications. This portrait of the Brazilian scenario can also be instrumental for comparative education purposes at regional and global levels.

Using a fiscal sentiment indicator, this study aims to verify whether fiscal sentiment affects the yield curve in Brazil. Since policymakers highlight the coordination between monetary and fiscal policies and the importance of fiscal policy to the expectations formation process in inflation targeting regimes, the authors also explore the transmission mechanism through inflation expectations. Hence, the study also analyzes the effect of fiscal sentiment on interest rate swap spreads through the inflation expectations channel.

Based on information obtained from official communiqués about fiscal policies issued by the Central Bank of Brazil and the Brazilian Ministry of Finance, the study builds a fiscal sentiment indicator. The econometric strategy to verify whether fiscal sentiment is related to the short tail of the yield curve is based on time series analysis through ordinary least squares and generalized method of moments estimates. In turn, to estimate the transmission mechanism through inflation expectations, the model uses interaction terms between fiscal sentiment and inflation expectations.

The results suggest a more optimistic (pessimistic) fiscal sentiment reduces (increases) swap spreads. The findings reveal that improvements in fiscal credibility and a more optimistic fiscal sentiment are able to reduce the positive marginal effect that inflation expectations variations have on interest rate swap spreads.

This study contributes to the literature, as, to the best of authors’ knowledge, it is the first to analyze the content of the communiqués related to fiscal policy, and based on this content, it extracts the sentiment related to the fiscal environment and analyzes the effect of this sentiment on the yield curve. Besides, different from existing studies that analyze the effect of fiscal backward-looking aspects (such as public debt, budget balance, taxes and public spending) on the yield curve, this study investigates forward-looking aspects related to fiscal policy (such as fiscal credibility and fiscal sentiment).