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The purpose of this paper is to investigate the role of peer learning and formative assessment as two creative learning methods in engineering learning environments. The results show that both models have yielded promising results with regard to meeting the criteria for the expected learning outcomes of the curriculum. However, the integrated model has resulted in better results than the model of formative assessment. The paper discusses also some practical and theoretical aspects related to the learning models.

It is advanced two general learning models; in the first model, the formative assessment is integrated with peer learning and in the second one, the formative assessment is solely used to enhance the learning. A field case study is conducted to investigate the effect of using the learning models on the expected learning outcomes of the students in an engineering course.

The results show that both learning models have yielded promising results with regard to meeting the criteria for the expected learning outcomes of the curriculum. However, the integrated model has resulted in better results than the model of formative assessment.

The two models can be applied for the engineering course that has both practical and theoretical aspects. It is expected that areas of expertize in engineering education can be developed very well with the models.

The results show that the two learning models have yielded promising results with regard to meeting the criteria for the expected learning outcomes of the curriculum and that formative assessment link to good learning practice does indeed give improved learning.

Increase the effectiveness of learning in engineering education.

Case study based on observation and planning.

Since the publication of Venkatraman and Grant's (1986) article two decades ago, considerably more attention has been directed at establishing the validity of constructs in the strategy literature. However, recent developments in measurement theory indicate that strategy researchers need to pay additional attention to whether their constructs should be modeled as having formative or reflective indicators. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to highlight the differences between formative and reflective indicator measurement models, and discuss the potential role of formative measurement models in strategy research. First, we systematically review the literature on construct measurement model specification. Second, we assess the extent of measurement model misspecification in the recent strategy literature. Our assessment of 257 constructs in the contemporary strategy literature suggests that many important strategy constructs are more appropriately modeled as having formative indicators than as having reflective indicators. Based on this review, we identify some common errors leading to measurement model misspecification in the strategy domain. Finally, we discuss some implications of our analyses for scholars in the strategic management field.

Information and communications technology (ICT) offers enormous opportunities for individuals, businesses and society. The application of ICT is equally important to economic and non-economic activities. Researchers have increasingly focused on the adoption and use of ICT by small and medium enterprises (SMEs) as the economic development of a country is largely dependent on them. Following the success of ICT utilisation in SMEs in developed countries, many developing countries are looking to utilise the potential of the technology to develop SMEs. Past studies have shown that the contribution of ICT to the performance of SMEs is not clear and certain. Thus, it is crucial to determine the effectiveness of ICT in generating firm performance since this has implications for SMEs’ expenditure on the technology. This research examines the diffusion of ICT among SMEs with respect to the typical stages from innovation adoption to post-adoption, by analysing the actual usage of ICT and value creation. The mediating effects of integration and utilisation on SME performance are also studied. Grounded in the innovation diffusion literature, institutional theory and resource-based theory, this study has developed a comprehensive integrated research model focused on the research objectives. Following a positivist research paradigm, this study employs a mixed-method research approach. A preliminary conceptual framework is developed through an extensive literature review and is refined by results from an in-depth field study. During the field study, a total of 11 SME owners or decision-makers were interviewed. The recorded interviews were transcribed and analysed using NVivo 10 to refine the model to develop the research hypotheses. The final research model is composed of 30 first-order and five higher-order constructs which involve both reflective and formative measures. Partial least squares-based structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) is employed to test the theoretical model with a cross-sectional data set of 282 SMEs in Bangladesh. Survey data were collected using a structured questionnaire issued to SMEs selected by applying a stratified random sampling technique. The structural equation modelling utilises a two-step procedure of data analysis. Prior to estimating the structural model, the measurement model is examined for construct validity of the study variables (i.e. convergent and discriminant validity).

The estimates show cognitive evaluation as an important antecedent for expectation which is shaped primarily by the entrepreneurs’ beliefs (perception) and also influenced by the owners’ innovativeness and culture. Culture further influences expectation. The study finds that facilitating condition, environmental pressure and country readiness are important antecedents of expectation and ICT use. The results also reveal that integration and the degree of ICT utilisation significantly affect SMEs’ performance. Surprisingly, the findings do not reveal any significant impact of ICT usage on performance which apparently suggests the possibility of the ICT productivity paradox. However, the analysis finally proves the non-existence of the paradox by demonstrating the mediating role of ICT integration and degree of utilisation explain the influence of information technology (IT) usage on firm performance which is consistent with the resource-based theory. The results suggest that the use of ICT can enhance SMEs’ performance if the technology is integrated and properly utilised. SME owners or managers, interested stakeholders and policy makers may follow the study’s outcomes and focus on ICT integration and degree of utilisation with a view to attaining superior organisational performance.

This study urges concerned business enterprises and government to look at the environmental and cultural factors with a view to achieving ICT usage success in terms of enhanced firm performance. In particular, improving organisational practices and procedures by eliminating the traditional power distance inside organisations and implementing necessary rules and regulations are important actions for managing environmental and cultural uncertainties. The application of a Bengali user interface may help to ensure the productivity of ICT use by SMEs in Bangladesh. Establishing a favourable national technology infrastructure and legal environment may contribute positively to improving the overall situation. This study also suggests some changes and modifications in the country’s existing policies and strategies. The government and policy makers should undertake mass promotional programs to disseminate information about the various uses of computers and their contribution in developing better organisational performance. Organising specialised training programs for SME capacity building may succeed in attaining the motivation for SMEs to use ICT. Ensuring easy access to the technology by providing loans, grants and subsidies is important. Various stakeholders, partners and related organisations should come forward to support government policies and priorities in order to ensure the productive use of ICT among SMEs which finally will help to foster Bangladesh’s economic development.

This study examines the quality of work-life (QoWL) as a formative construct and validates the scale in an Indian context. Taking a cue from the two-factor (Herzberg) theory, the study developed and validated a formative assessment model of QoWL in the current scenario.

Cross-sectional data and a self-administered questionnaire were used to analyze the QoWL scale based on a sample of 841 respondents from IT/ITES, BFSI, CPG and manufacturing sectors. Indicators/items of QoWL were considered a first-order reflective construct, and factors of QoWL were considered second-order formative construct in the study. Embedded two-stage approach was used to assess the antecedent construct in the model in which QoWL was measured with seven formative indicators in stage one, and all the constructs of the QoWL are measured with a single item (Global_QWL, i.e. the essence of all constructs) in stage two.

The study found QoWL as a formative construct with seven significant dimensions; namely, hygiene factors included fairness in compensation (FC), job security (JS), interpersonal relationship (IR), health and wellbeing (HWB), where motivational factors had rewards and career growth (RG), work-life balance (WLB) and learning and development (LD). The study also indicated the strong association of a single item (global_QWL) with all constructs of QoWL. The study findings conceptualize a QoWL as a formative construct within the mentioned sector and can be generalized and extended to other sectors of the economy as well.

Future researchers can take guidance to deal with the formative construct in the development and validation of scale in various topics in the field of HRM. Future researchers can extend the study across cities and different sectors.

In this VUCA world, employees have to be constantly on their toes to ensure their organization remains relevant. In this context, the least organization can do for their employees is to offer a conducive environment and favorable QoWL. This study aims to assist the key decision-makers in applying the QoWL index as a formative construct and aiding them in improving the quality of their decisions.

Researcher believes that applying the QoWL index as a formative construct can aid decision-makers in improving the quality of their decisions by equipping them with relevant inputs and knowledge. Government can focus on the employees' welfare and introduce the current motivational and hygiene factors in the area of quality of life of the Indians.

Formative assessment measurement of QoWL model was validated with the two-factor theory to understand the work environment of India in the private sector across different sectors. The unique finding of the study was a single item (global_QWL) to conclude the QoWL index as a formative construct by redundancy analysis.

Most empirical balanced scorecard (BSC) studies have shown a tendency to wrongly employ reflective indicators instead of the more theoretically suitable formative indicators. However, formative indicators are difficult to apply due to the lack of statistical software support and a standardized model testing method. The paper aims to discuss these issues.

This study empirically compares the reflective and formative measurement method with standardized model comparison criteria. After collecting 217 valid questionnaires from companies in South Korea, the authors applied a structural equation modeling technique to analyze the data.

The result shows that the formative measure provides greater validity for the corporate performance measurement using BSC. Further, this study shows the indicators’ relative influence on each BSC perspectives using the formative measure.

This study proved the usefulness of the formative measure analysis method and suggested its practical use, focusing on the indicators most useful in developing corporate strategies. In addition, the authors showed that formative indicators could be used in the corporate environment by overcoming the limitations of conventional studies that were confined to causal relationships with latent variables.

This study may be the pioneering work that compares formative and reflective indicators simultaneously, addressing the usefulness of formative measurement and its application validity in the existing empirical studies using reflective measurements.

The purpose of this paper is to provide an understanding of the issues related to formative modeling and the implications for its use, including some practical suggestions on methods for utilizing causal indicators within models.

In order to understand and explore the issues relating to formative models, this paper explores both formative and reflective indicators that together address the basic approach to the causal relationship within measurement models in structural equations modeling. Process recommendations for formative model/variable conceptualization and development are presented as well as a discussion of several evaluative issues including identification and proportionality. Some of the main arguments for and against its use are also discussed.

While the literature on formative models stresses its contribution to behavioral sciences, perhaps its greatest contribution is the flexibility of choice that it provides researchers in the development of models to more accurately estimate the relationship under consideration.

The paper contributes to the on-going debate on the relative advantages and disadvantages of the formative and reflective approaches to modeling and examination. Although the pendulum has swung in recent years away from an almost singular focus on reflective models, both approaches provide useful and complementary tools to theoretical management research modeling.

This study, a post hoc observational one, attempted to determine if career and technical education (CTE) students in the state of Mississippi would academically benefit from taking multiple formative assessments in an online format prior to completing their summative exams. Most CTE students in the state of Mississippi are required to take an end-of-course exam cataloged as the Mississippi Career and Planning Assessment System (MS-CPAS). Previously, MS-CPAS test score results did not impact school-wide accountability scores, but in recent years, some of the guidelines were changed so that these summative test scores now play a vital role in school accountability and rankings.

This study examines both formative and summative online exam scores for more than 13,000 students who have taken an MS-CPAS assessment in the 2018 and 2019 school years.

The results of this study revealed that there were significant differences in summative exam scores for students who took two online formative practice tests when compared to groups of students who did not take any formative practice tests. This study also illustrated a positive correlation between those students' final online practice test scores and their summative exam scores.

These results would prove very beneficial to both CTE teachers and directors in helping them understand the benefits of introducing formative practice tests into their programs to boost student understanding.

To clarify the nature of the error term in formative measurement models, as it had been misinterpreted in prior research.

The error term in formative measurement models is analytically contrasted with the measurement errors typically found in reflective measurement models.

It is demonstrated that, unlike in reflective measurement, the error term in formative models is not measurement error but rather a disturbance representing non‐modeled causes. It is also shown that, under certain circumstances, the inclusion of an error term is not necessary/appropriate.

Focus is only on first‐order measurement models; higher‐order specifications are not considered.

The paper helps researchers in their initial specification of formative measurement models as well as their evaluation of the subsequent model estimates, leading to better specifications for formative constructs.

Formative assessment is of critical concern within higher education, particularly as ‘feedback’ remains a recurring source of student dissatisfaction. In contemporary times, the need to decolonise higher education emerged first in post-colonial contexts of the global south, before becoming a more general debate in contexts which historically were at the heart of empire. Literatures on formative assessment and decolonisation have, however, remained discrete and disconnected. This chapter first makes the connection between decolonisation and assessment, highlighting the need to question dominant (modern) understandings of assessment as ‘objective’ measurement. It then suggests potentially helpful strands in assessment and wider literature to re-imagine formative assessment practices that might support decolonisation agendas, discussing this with reference to the authors' previous research. It closes by suggesting some modest ways forward that more openly acknowledge the problematics of assessment as a social practice, as well as the need for further research.