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People have unconscious motives which affects their decision-making and associated behavior. The paper describes a study using thematic apperception test (TAT) to measure how unconscious motives influence travelers' interpretations and preferences toward alternative tours and hotels. Using the TAT, the present study explores the relationships between three unconscious needs: (1) achievement, (2) affiliation, and (3) power and preferences for four package tours (adventure, culture, business, and escape tours) and for seven hotel identities (quality, familiarity, location, price, friendliness, food and beverage, and cleanliness and aesthetics). The present study conducts canonical correlation analyses to examine the relationships between unconscious needs and preferences for package tours and hotel identities using data from 467 university students. The study scores 2,438 stories according to the TAT manual to identify unconscious needs. The findings indicate that (1) people with a high need for affiliation prefer an experience based on cultural values and hotels that are conveniently located, (2) individuals with a high need for power indicate a preference for high prices and good value for their money, and (3) people with a high need for achievement prefer a travel experience with adventure as a motivation. The study findings are consistent with previous research of McClelland (1990), Wilson (2002), and Woodside et al. (2008) in exploring impacts of the unconscious levels of human need.

The purpose of this paper is to explore and explicate the role of the unconscious, from an analytical psychology framework, in the development of managers.

Developing effective managers is an enormous task requiring views from many different perspectives. The lifeblood of all types of managerial work and activity involves relating, understanding, cooperating, and depending on others at both a conscious and unconscious level. In this paper, management development and the unconscious is viewed from an analytical psychology (Jungian) perspective.

Insights are provided from this framework describing how managers might become more receptive and effective in relational skills necessary for the effective management of the workplace.

The paper develops a conceptual framework, which may help managers, through a dialogue with the unconscious, become more receptive to emotion, feeling and subjectivity in workers and themselves. This, in turn, may make them more effective in relating and being related to others.

The purpose of this paper is to present the proposition that culture in international management has been dominated by a “Western dualism to measuring culture” (Caprar et al., 2015, p. 1024), which has resulted in severe problems and persistent limitations. The suggestion is that cultural research can be more productively conceived as a paradox involving a duality between two contrasting yet co-determined spheres or domains.

The paper provides an outline of culture as a paradox and an outline of a research approach to address the dualities of culture.

A cultural duality is described, which involves a paradoxical “yin-yang” relationship between two contrasting yet mutually constituted aspects of the collective mind. One domain, which involves conscious cognitive elements has dominated research characterized by positivism and empirical cross-cultural explorations of phenomenological cultural values. The second, more recondite domain, involves unconscious and embodied cultural phenomena, which are more tacit and hidden in indirect expression through communicative interaction, exchanges of symbolic representations and embodied behaviour in context.

A methodological duality of qualitative and quantitative mixing in order to provide a bi-focal understanding of both tacit and explicit aspects of culture is proposed as a research agenda.

The suggestion is that these cultural shadows have been relatively neglected thus far in cross-cultural management research. This means that in order to better comprehend culture as paradox, an equalization of approaches sensitive to both sides of the duality is prescient. In pursuit of this idea, a complementary qualitative analysis directed at more nebulous cultural phenomena is proposed in order to provide a balanced analysis of culture as paradox.

The purpose of the paper is to identify and develop an understanding of the aspects of tacit knowledge that play a significant role in enabling organizational learning.

Taking a multi‐dimensional approach, this paper moves toward an understanding of tacit knowledge through the lens of neuroscience, evolutionary biology, psychology, competency theory and knowledge management. The paper begins with the definition of knowledge, then discusses explicit, implicit and tacit knowledge and their relationships. Then individual learning is explored through the four aspects of tacit knowledge (embodied, affective, intuitive, and spiritual). Next the concept of extraordinary consciousness is developed and a four‐fold action model proposed for working with tacit knowledge to improve organizational learning. Finally, this model is engaged to begin the exploration of the role of leadership with respect to tacit knowledge and organizational learning.

The recognition that tacit knowledge resides beyond ordinary consciousness leads to the search to develop greater sensitivity to information stored in the unconscious to facilitate the management and use of tacit knowledge. Surfacing, embedding and sharing tacit knowledge are approaches for mobilizing tacit knowledge in support of individual and organizational objectives. In addition, it was forwarded that participating in or exposing ourselves to situations that induce resonance engages our personal passion in developing deeper knowledge and expanded awareness of that knowledge, that is, moving us toward extraordinary consciousness.

This paper is a new treatment of tacit knowledge that is consistent with recent findings in neuroscience and evolutionary biology. Further, it begins the exploration of ways to achieve extraordinary consciousness, thereby enhancing the capacity of an organization to learn.

This applied neuroscience study aims to understand how direct and unconscious emotional and cognitive responses underlie travel destination preferences. State-of-the-art neuroscience tools and methods were used, including stationary eye tracking and brain scanning electroencephalography (EEG) to assess emotional and cognitive responses to destination images and assets. To the researchers’ knowledge, this study is the first applied neuroscience study in tourism research and thus opens a new path of research and enquiry to this area. This paper is an attempt to understand specific mental processes in human tourism behaviours, and it is suggest that unconscious emotional and cognitive responses are natural processes that need to be studied and understood, not as special cases, but embedded as natural parts of tourism research.

To better understand consumers’ unconscious responses to possible travel destinations, a 3 × 5 factorial design was run with the factors being stimulus type (images, printed names and videos) and travel destination (Dubai, Abu Dhabi, Hong Kong, New York and London). Eye-tracking calibration was done with a nine-point fixation test and the EEG calibration was done using functional localizer tests based on the ABM B-ALERT calibration process. This calibration procedure allows reliable tracking of emotional and cognitive responses over time. Thirty Emirati (nationals of the UAE) participants, consisting of equal numbers of males and females (15) were recruited from the UAE and signed informed consent. Each participant was positioned in front of an eye tracker and computer screen, and brain-scanning equipment was mounted; then, each participant underwent eye-tracking and neuroimaging calibration procedures. A Tobii T60XL eye tracker and an ABM X-10 EEG brain scanner, both running iMotions v5.1 in a Windows 7 environment, were used.

General emotional and cognitive differences were identified between the channels through which travel destinations are presented. Words about and names of travel destinations cause higher cognitive loads, which may not be surprising, given the greater associative load that words have than images. Of particular interest is the hypothesis that images evoke stronger affective responses than verbal representations. However, as previously noted (Holmes and Mathews, 2005), empirical evidence for this assumption seems surprisingly sparse. The present study and the context provided here suggest that decisions on travel destination have an unconscious component and a direct component that may drive or affect overt preference and actual choice.

The limitations of this paper is that first, neuromarketing is not dependent on sample sizes; however, future studies could build on this paper to understand why there is a preference for cities. It is suggested that unconscious emotional and cognitive responses are natural processes that need to be studied and understood, not as special cases, but embedded as natural parts of tourism research.

Thus, tourism research may indeed be a suitable field for understanding the brain bases of complex preference formation and choice. Various researchers have found that a destination image is typically measured using cognitive, affective and behavioural components, and further stated that the cognitive image component of a destination was found to have a significant positive effect on the affective image component and overall destination image (Stylidis et al., 2017). Therefore, this research which has introduced brain scanning can be used to better understand the underlying unconscious emotional and cognitive processes that affect consumer thought and action. An understanding of what goes on in the human unconscious mind is very important for destination marketers, this can help in the integrated marketing communication process to create a destination image and brand.

Research findings support the view that a multiple methods approach is necessary to surface the substantial amount of relevant thinking processes that occur both consciously and unconsciously within different phases of consumer decision making. Chapter 5 advocates viewing all studies that ask informants questions as representative of researcher–informant introspections. Because answers to questions differ substantially depending on how the questions are framed, applying multiple, explicit, question frames to acquire conscious and unconscious thoughts in researcher–informant introspections is helpful. This chapter reviews multiple methods, including metaphor elicitation of unconscious thinking, useful for achieving and confirming thick descriptions of conscious and unconscious thinking associated with informants’ deep-seated beliefs and observable actions.

Online health communities (OHCs) can be complementary to healthcare systems to improve the health behaviors of older adults with chronic diseases. This study aims to examine the impacts of habit and social support receipt on older adults' continued participation in OHCs. Particularly, the authors discussed the influences of social support received in two ways: social support received by initiating threads (direct social support receipt) and social support received by being exposed to the threads initiated by others (indirect social support receipt).

Based on the dual-process model (i.e. conscious process and unconscious process), the authors developed the research model. Data from one of the biggest online diabetes communities in Europe were collected. Besides, we used the support vector machine algorithm for social support classification and used the Cox proportion hazards model for model validation.

Older adults' continued participation is influenced by habit and indirect informational support. Habit moderates the relationship between direct informational support receipt and older adults' continued participation. Furthermore, direct and indirect emotional support receipt are both not associated with older adults' continued participation, regardless of their habit strength.

This is the first study investigating older adults' continued participation in OHCs based on the dual-process model. The findings of this study reveal that older adults' continued participation is determined by both the habit and specific conscious evaluation of benefits based on the social support receipt.

Micro-tipping point (MTP) theory includes the proposal that a specific stream of unconscious and conscious thoughts result in a go/no-go discretionary action in a given context (e.g., whether or not to visit a given destination in a given season or year involving particular persons being included or excluded from the trip; whether to buy a Ford, BMW, or Toyota). The specific stream represents a stream or conjunctive combination of thoughts-in-context that results in a tourist party actually taking the steps that include booking the trip and experiencing a destination first-hand. Building such contingency models that are applicable to real-life combinations of unconscious and conscious thinking requires collecting data from informants on both implicit and explicit beliefs, attitudes, and thinking rules relevant for a specific yes/no context. Chapter 14 illustrates applying the long interview for collecting such data and using quantitative comparative analysis for constructing MTP models.

In this study, scales are developed for phantasy and its determinants, which is accepted as an important variable in investment preference with an emotional finance perspective. The scales developed in this framework are narrative, divided mind, group feel, informed herding, uninformed herding and phantasy. In addition, the power of these determinants to explain phantasy was investigated.

For this purpose, the data was obtained between May 01, 2019 and November 30, 2019 via an online survey with convenience sampling. First, a pilot study consisting of 200 subjects was performed. Then, additional data was collected. The total number of subjects was 648. The authors used IBM SPSS Statistics and AMOS for analysis. Exploratory factor analysis and discriminant analysis were performed. In addition, confirmatory factor analysis was performed after an additional data collection process with structural equation modeling.

As a result of analyses, the validity and reliability of these scales were ensured statistically. It was also found that divided mind directly affects phantasy, but group feel and narrative indirectly affect by informed herding. The “unknown and new investment” preference, which is accepted as a typical feature of the bubble periods, is modeled with the relevant variables. In this framework, it has been found that the variables that refer individuals to the relevant investment preferences are phantasy, group feel, uninformed herding and divided mind.

The study is unique because of its findings and developed scales. The findings are valuable in that the theoretically alleged relations were also obtained empirically.

The purpose of this paper is to present a systems perspective of context avenues that impact the knowledge‐sharing process.

Following a brief introduction of the meaning of context, an example of face‐to‐face interaction is used to explore the term “context‐sensitive” in terms of sharing knowledge in a one‐way single exchange from a source to a perceiver. Eight different context avenues are presented, their relationship to the conscious and unconscious mind addressed, and their impact on the sharing of knowledge considered.

The authors posit that there are eight primary context avenues that potentially impact the creation of knowledge in terms of shared understanding and meaning, and that the higher the number of related patterns forwarded through content and context the greater the resonance of shared understanding. Further, that the unconscious mind plays a significant role in embedding context and creating meaning.

This paper provides a shift in perception from the transmission of information to the sharing and re‐creation of knowledge in terms of shared understanding and meaning. It also presents a new model of context avenues impacting the sharing of knowledge.