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This chapter outlines potential steps to take in designing active learning experiences based on several theories underlying the learning process. The chapter examines theories of learning and instruction including information processing, schema acquisition, and cognitive load theory. Next follows an explanation of how these theories support problem-centered learning as well as a rationale for the need to help learners develop domain-general, flexible problem-solving skills that will transfer to future needs and contexts. The second half of the chapter focuses on designing active learning experiences based on the selection of real-world problems as the foundation for learning, activating prior knowledge, demonstration of the process or concept, multiple opportunities for practice with relevant scaffolding, and the chance to integrate that knowledge into the learners’ own context based on M. D. Merrill’s (2002) First Principles of Instruction. Examples of assessments, strategies, and activities to foster active, problem-centered learning drawn from the literature are also provided.

Information technology has been recognized as one of the keys to improved productivity in organizations. Yet, existing research has not paid sufficient attention to how information systems (ISs) influence the creative performance of individual users. The paper aims to discuss this issue.

This study draws on the theories of flow and cognitive load to establish a model of the predicted influences. The authors hypothesize that the information technology supports creativity by engaging individuals in a creative process and by lowering their cognitive load related to the process. To test these hypotheses, the authors employ a meta-analytical structural equation modeling approach using 24 previous studies on creativity and ISs use.

The results suggest that factors that help the user to maintain an interest in the performed task, immerse the user in a state of flow, and lower a person’s cognitive load during IS use can affect the user’s creative performance.

The findings imply that a combination of the theories of flow and cognitive load complements the understanding of how ISs influence creativity.

This paper proposes an explanation on why ISs affect creativity, which can be used by scholars to position further research, and by practitioners to implement creativity support systems.

The purpose of this exploratory study was to investigate the relationship between simulation training and police officers' ability to think creatively in crises.

This quantitative study used instructional design principles including aspects of Cognitive Load Theory to explore the cognitive load and creative thinking of police officers training with a MILO Range use-of-force simulator.

When provided with scenarios requiring de-escalation of emotionally disturbed persons, and when encouraged to be creative or innovative in their approach to de-escalate, officers were observed being more creative after experiencing a second simulation with the same scenario; however, multiple repetitions of similar scenarios did not result in an innovative response.

The results of this study suggest that cognitive load could be affected by changing the manner in which the officers train in simulation. When a simulator curriculum is designed with the incorporation of cognitive load theory, there is potential to foster creative thinking in a situation where de-escalation is the goal.

Instructional design principles, consideration of cognitive load and creative problem-solving are nontraditional methods in the law enforcement field and in use-of-force training.

The purpose of this paper is to present a theoretical framework, which describes how police training programs can be developed in order to improve learning retention and the transfer of skills to the work environment.

A brief review is provided that describes training strategies stemming from Cognitive Load Theory (CLT), a well‐established theory of instructional design. This is followed by concrete examples of how to incorporate these strategies into police training programs.

The research reviewed in this paper consistently demonstrates that CLT‐informed training improves learning when compared to conventional training approaches and enhances the transferability of skills.

Rarely have well‐validated theories of instructional design, such as CLT, been applied specifically to police training. Thus, this paper is valuable to instructional designers because it provides an evidence‐based approach to training development in the policing domain.

Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) is the product of over a decade of research in the instructional science domain (Chandler & Sweller, 1991; Sweller & Chandler, 1994), and its applications to other areas of inquiry continues to expand (see Cuevas, Fiore, & Oser, 2002; Paas, Renkl, & Sweller, 2003a; Paas, Tuovinen, Tabbers, & Van Gerven, 2003b; Scielzo, Fiore, Cuevas, & Salas, 2004). The core of CLT is based on two sets of what are termed cognitive load factors that are either endogenous or exogenous from the viewpoint of an operator interacting with the environment. Endogenous (or intrinsic) factors are sources of cognitive load in terms of the general amount and complexity of information with which the operator has to interact. In training environments, intrinsic load is directly proportional to the amount of materials that trainees need to acquire. As such, the more complex the information is in terms of volume and conceptual interactivity, the higher the cognitive load will be. In operational settings, high intrinsic load can occur whenever informational demands that need to be processed are high. Within the context of human–robot team environments, there is likely to be unique intrinsic load factors emerging from this hybrid teamwork interaction (e.g., information produced by synthetic team members). Another source of cognitive load comes from exogenous or extraneous factors. In training and operational settings alike, extraneous cognitive load may occur dependent upon the manner in which information needing attention is presented. Specifically, the more complex the human–robot team interface is in relation to the process by which information is displayed and/or communicated, the more extraneous cognitive load can be present. For example, the technological tools involved in the communication of information, and the associated modalities used to process information may inadvertently result in cognitive load. Simply put, high extraneous cognitive load can be produced as a result of using sub-optimal information presentation and communication. Overall, exogenous factors can stem from the added complexity of human–robot operations in terms of distinct command-and-control systems that emerge from using novel technology. Within such operations, it is particularly important to control sources of extraneous cognitive load that have been shown to produce two distinct negative effects on information processing – redundancy of information and split-attention. These have been shown to attenuate processing capacity thereby minimizing optimal information processing (e.g., Sweller, 1994; Mayer, 1999).

Virtual communities are useful sources of travel information for tourists. To better promote the sustainable development of virtual communities and provide theoretical guidance, this study aims to explore how the cognitive load generated by tourists in the information-seeking process facilitates the formation of their continuance intention.

Built on the cognitive load theory and flow theory, this study investigates the formation mechanism of virtual community users’ continuance intention to seek travel information. A total of 328 valid questionnaires were collected and used for hypothesis testing.

The results show that perceived usefulness, perceived information consistency and prior experience positively affect continuance intention. Concentration and time distortion have significant effects on continuance intention. Moreover, concentration and time distortion mediate between prior experience and continuance intention.

This study clarifies the formation mechanism of virtual community users’ continuance intention of travel information seeking from a new perspective. The conclusions enrich the research on consumer behavior in the information search field and provide a reference for virtual communities.

The purpose of this paper is to examine the context of cognitive load and the role of in-app controls that serve as visual aids to promote business process understanding and the use of accounting information system (AIS) for small business users.

In total, 164 participants from small- and medium-sized enterprises were invited to participate in an experiment with between-subjects 2×2 factorial design. Researchers provided two sets of manipulations in the form of in-app control aids, namely Navigation and Guidance. Groups of individuals either received both navigation and guidance, only navigation or only guidance, or no treatment at all. These four different groups were then tested by a range of tasks to measure user understanding on small business domain knowledge and accounting business process provided by the system.

The findings indicate that although several early indications were visually observed wherein Navigation and Guidance may help reduce individual cognitive load and hence provide potential value for a better understanding of business process, the statistical analysis has not yet been able to substantiate the differences. Despite visually supporting the hypotheses, neither Navigation nor Guidance proved significant on accuracy (scores), efficiency (time) and individual cognitive difficulties. It appears that a systematic training on the accounting process is arguably imperative in order to reduce the extraneous cognitive load due to a relative gap of accounting logic and users’ knowledge of their business process. Ultimately, it would promote the germane knowledge where the integration of user’s own business process and accounting process can manifest effectively.

Aligned with the findings of the research and its correlation with learning, apparently the learning process is not merely determined not only by the application control features being embedded, but also by the domain knowledge of individuals who interact with the system. Training related to the discussion of the accounting process should be conducted more intensively to minimize the gap between the knowledge upon the problems on individual business process and the mechanism of the accounting process.

This research takes a new approach in examining user acceptance toward an AIS by comparing task performance with and without the assistive devices, to assess how these visual aids may overcome the cognitive load of the individual.

This study aims to examine the effects of voice enthusiasm (enthusiastic voice vs calm voice) on social ratings of the speaker, cognitive load and transfer performance in multimedia learning.

Two laboratory experiments were conducted in which learners learned from a multimedia presentation about computer algorithm that was narrated by either an enthusiastic human voice or a calm human voice.

Results from Experiment 1 revealed that the enthusiastic voice narration led to higher social ratings of the speaker and transfer performance when compared to the calm voice narration. Experiment 2 demonstrated that the enthusiastic voice led to higher affective social ratings (human-like and engaging) and transfer performance as compared to the calm voice. Moreover, it was shown that a calm voice prompted a higher germane load than an enthusiastic voice, which conforms to the argument that prosodic cues in voice can influence processing in multimedia learning among non-native speakers.

This study extends from prior studies that examined voice effects related to mechanization, accent, dialect, and slang in multimedia learning to examining the effects of voice enthusiasm in multimedia learning.

The purpose of this study is to investigate whether the recent reduction in the volume and complexity of the financial accounting curriculum, which is examinable as part of the qualification process of chartered accountants in South Africa, has resulted in improvements in students’ understanding of core accounting concepts. The reasons for the curriculum reduction are to encourage life-long learning, reduce syllabus overload and focus on core principles.

A sample of 514 students completed an assessment designed to test core concepts. Approximately half the students had been exposed to the previous, larger and more complex curriculum; the other half had only been exposed to the reduced, simpler ‘core’ curriculum.

Although the assessment results of the two cohorts were not significantly different, the latter cohort made significantly less conceptual errors than the former cohort, even though the latter cohort was relatively novice. This finding supports the hypothesis that the reduced curriculum assists students’ understanding of core concepts. Furthermore, it aligns with Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) in that the reduction in examinable content reduces intrinsic load within cognitive load, thereby optimising student learning, as measured by assessment results and error rates.

The findings of this study have relevance for professional accounting bodies responsible for approving curriculum; accounting and other academics interested in the consequences of curriculum reduction on student learning and researchers applying CLT across other disciplines, specifically focussed on the relationship between intrinsic load and learning efficiency.

Few studies have tested the efficacy of instruction based on cognitive load theory in police use-of-force (UoF) training due to limitations of existing cognitive load measures. Although linguistic measures of cognitive load address these limitations, they have yet to be applied to police UoF training. This study aims to discuss the aforementioned issue.

Officers’ verbal behavioral data from two UoF de-escalation projects were used to calculate cognitive load and assess how it varied with officer experience level (less-experienced, experienced). The verbal data were further analyzed to examine specific thinking patterns that contributed to heightened cognitive load across officer experience levels.

Across both studies, responses from less-experienced officers contained greater usage of cognitive language than responses from experienced officers. Specific cognitive processes that contribute to cognitive load in specific situations were also identified.

This paper enables police trainers to facilitate the development of adaptive training strategies to improve police UoF training via the reduction of cognitive load, and also contributes to the collective understanding of how less-experienced and experienced officers differ in their UoF decision-making.