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Purpose – The purpose of this chapter is to highlight recent research addressing theories of female offending and the context of female perpetrated homicides. Women have often been omitted in research and theory development, thus gendered interventions and treatments lag behind. Additionally, female perpetrated homicides are rare, consequently research examining the context of the events and the events leading up to the homicide are inadequate.

Design/methodology/approach – The approach is to examine the historical research on female offenders, the context of female violent offenses particularly homicide offenses, and emerging theories of gendered experiences into criminal activities for women.

Findings – Findings indicate that gender matters when explaining theories of female offending and when examining the context of female perpetrated homicides.

Originality/value – Females have different life events from males, and these life events create distinct pathways into criminal offending, including the ultimate offense of homicide. Based on these differences, theory development as well as intervention and prevention strategies must be designed that are gender specific.

Recently, correctional agencies have argued that there are differences between factors influencing men and women’s involvement in the criminal justice system. The purpose of this paper is to examine the validity of a gender-informed risk/need assessment tool.

The sample consisted of 620 women offenders admitted to federal Canadian custody, as well as a matched-comparison group of 647 men. Items were selected from routine assessments in an administrative database based on an extensive literature review of factors related to criminal risk for women.

Results showed that the items included in this assessment and the overall rating of risk/need significantly predicted any return to custody for both women and men. As well, ratings incrementally predicted any return to custody over and above other established tools.

The gender-informed risk/need assessment tool, informed by the literature, performed well for both men and women. The research highlights the complementary, not competing, perspectives of gender-neutral and gender-responsive risk and need factors.

Factors commonly considered gender-salient predicted risk for men and women. The present study demonstrates that risk assessments tools for men and women should look beyond the factors routinely assessed in the research to identify novel dynamic factors that contribute to risk for men and women and could be targeted for intervention.

We use Canadian data to examine the help‐seeking strategies of women dealing with the consequences of violent victimization. Consideration of the help‐seeking strategies of victimsmay provide insight into other decision‐making processes. The analytic framework integrates research on police reporting and intimate partner violence with the wider help‐seeking literature. This integration allows for an examination of the effect of the victim’s relationship to her offender on decisions to seek help from family, friends, doctors, social service agencies and the police. The research has two objectives. First, we aim to determine whether help‐seeking exists as isolated choices or whether there is a discernable set of help‐seeking strategies used by crime victims. Although many victims do not call the police, they often rely on family, friends, social service and mental health interventions.We find that those victims who report their victimizations to the police also seek support from family and friends. Second, we examine the correlates of these help‐seeking decisions. In doing so, we explore the effects of the offender relationship on decisions to seek help. We explore differences in help‐seeking across attacks by strangers, spousal offenders, dating offenders, and other known offenders. Our findings suggest that women victimized by a spousal offender are more likely than others to use a substantial help‐seeking strategy that includes disclosure to the police, doctors and social service agencies.

The purpose of this paper is to explore women’s experiences of criminal justice systems to inform the development of guidance on working with women.

A two-part, independent samples and qualitative study using semi-structured interviews incorporating both interpretive phenomenological analysis and thematic analysis was conducted. In Study 1, semi-structured interviews were conducted with six women on probation in the community and data were analysed using interpretative phenomenological analysis. Interviews in Study 2 were conducted with seven women in custody with data analysed using inductive-deductive thematic analysis. The applicability and expansion of Study 1 themes was then explored.

Seven emergent themes indicated relational approaches to offender management may improve experiences of judicial systems for female offenders and for their probation officers. This approach may help prevent common systemic issues from perpetuating negative interactions between these groups. Specific suggestions for developing relational security and consistency of care within these relationships are provided.

Taking a relational approach to female offender management may help remedy some of the systemic difficulties faced by female offenders and their probation officers.

By focussing on the experiences of women screened in to the offender personality disorder pathway this study provides insight as to how this service can assist in the development of relational security between probation staff and their clients.

Although there is a vast array of theories on crime, one area that is largely under-represented is that of the actual experience of the offender engaged in criminal acts. The purpose of this paper is to examine the individual and phenomenological experiences of crime amongst women offenders.

The sample consisted of 128 women who had committed a criminal offence, with an average age of 36.40 years (SD=11.12). Participants were recruited to take part in the study by answering a questionnaire exploring the emotions and narrative roles they experienced during commission of a crime. From this, participants’ Criminal Narrative Experience (CNE) was determined.

Smallest Space Analysis (SSA) analyses revealed that emotional experiences and narrative roles were thematically associated, and when both were subjected to SSA analysis, two main themes of CNE were identified: Avenging Angel and Choiceless Victim. The Choiceless Victim experience was the most representative of women’s experiences in this study.

The theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed. Future directions for research are also outlined.

The findings offer an alternative perspective and theoretical framework for examining women offenders’ criminal experiences.

A Rapid Evidence Assessment (REA) determined the effectiveness of correctional programmes for women offenders and examined features of programmes providing the strongest outcomes. The paper aims to discuss these issues.

Electronic databases and web sites were reviewed to identify literature focused on interventions with female offenders published since 2006, the end point of the last REA conducted in the area. The following retention criteria were applied: participants were over age 18; sample included women and results are reported separately for women; study included an appropriate comparison group; study included recidivism as an outcome measure. Studies’ methodological design quality was assessed using the Maryland Scientific Methods Scale.

In total, one meta-analysis and 22 studies reflecting 17 unique samples, published from 2006 to December 2014, were identified. Overall, the best evidence suggests that the following programmes and approaches have an evidence base: first, substance abuse treatment, in particular in-custody or hierarchical therapeutic community programmes; second, gender-responsive programmes that emphasize existing strengths and competencies, as well as skills acquisition; and third, following in-custody programme treatment with participation in community follow-up sessions. There is also promising evidence for the use of community opioid maintenance among heroin addicted women.

This review demonstrated that since 2006 the number of high-quality research studies assessing women’s correctional outcomes has grown considerably. The results provide guidance to programme designers and administrators on programmes for women offenders likely to be effective in promoting public safety goals and offender reintegration.

The purpose of this paper is to outline the development, structure and implementation of the Choices, Actions, Relationships and Emotions (CARE) programme.

This paper will present some of the background to the programme, its aims, structure and delivery methods and the nature of the treatment population to date. It will also reflect on some of the lessons learnt through the development and implementation of the programme and the challenges faced in evaluating its impact. Plans for its future evaluation and development are discussed.

Female offenders represent a distinct group with particular treatment and responsivity needs. These have traditionally been accommodated in programmes developed for male offenders, adapted slightly to meet their needs. CARE represents a distinct approach, designed specifically for the needs of female offenders with a history of violence and complex presentations.

CARE is a relatively new programme and this is the first paper to outline its structure and content.

The 2011 Offender Personality Disorder Strategy promoted formulation-led approaches to offender management. The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate how formulation can inform partnership-working with women offenders, specifically those with complex needs including personality difficulties.

Learning from partnership case-work is shared to highlight a psychological understanding of the needs of one female offender, and the organisational system operating around her.

The paper describes the development of a “volcano metaphor” as a conceptual framework to assist workers, without psychological training, to better understand the complexity of a client’s intense emotional world. It also reflects the impact of an individualised formulation for through-the-gate working.

The challenges and advantages of “joined-up” inter-agency working are highlighted, including some ideas on how to promote consistency. These include the use of formulation as the basis for decision making and to help “contain” strong emotions attached to working with complex women offenders. Importance is attached to stable and appropriate housing for such women by anticipating their resettlement needs prior to points of transition, and coordinating provision through multi-agency public protection arrangements.

The paper’s originality lies with the development of the volcano diagram as an accessible format for considering individualised formulation and risk assessment. The paper also offers detailed reflections on wider systemic processes attached to working with complex women offenders. It is particularly relevant to psychological practitioners working within probation and prisons, and also to offender managers.

The purpose of this paper is to review the status of biosignal measures of female sexual arousal with a view to examining the feasibility of such procedures in a forensic context. Although adult women represent the minority of sexual offenders, female perpetrated sexual abuse has been gaining increasing attention in the forensic psychological literature as criminal justice is confronted with female offending populations to a greater extent than previously recognised.

Psychological assessments of sex offenders have tended to be over-dependent on the use of self-report measures (i.e. an individual's appraisal and report of their emotional state of sexual arousal). There is a dearth of empirical knowledge concerning the psychophysiological assessment of female sexual interest in general and especially so for female sex offenders. Physiological measures are those that rely on directly observable physiological responses of the individual in order to identify patterns of sexual interest or arousal.

Because deviant sexual interest (in children or the use of violence) as assessed by penile plethysmography, has been established as one of the strongest predictors of recidivism in male sex offenders (and as a viable alternative to self-report methodologies), an analogue measurement approach for female sex offenders is desirable. This paper considers: first, theoretical problems (e.g. what does female physiological arousal mean in terms of sexual arousal/desire?; second, technical measurement problems (e.g. reactivity of the measure in within subject designs); and third, procedural/ethical problems (e.g. invasiveness of the application).

While a number of physiological assessment devices are considered in this paper, the paper discusses the labial photoplethysmograph as a promising method for female sexual offender populations.

The purpose of this paper is to explore the incidence and impact of exposure to sexual victimisation for women in the criminal justice system. Key ongoing vulnerabilities in respect of mental health and substance abuse, and their contribution to women’s offending, are examined. Treatment responses to address these women’s trauma in custodial settings are then discussed. It is argued that a therapeutic approach is required to provide a holistic response to victimised women offenders. Unfortunately, instead of doing so, many prisons’ ethos and approaches may actually produce a further layer of vulnerability. The paper concludes with commentary on future directions for research and practice.

The researchers undertook a desk-based literature review, using search terms such as “women”, “corrections”, “sexual abuse and/or victimisation” and “trauma”. The literature was analysed through a feminist framework, adopting a vulnerability paradigm.

The paper analyses the incidence and impact of sexual victimisation on women prisoners and notes that comprehensive trauma-informed care in custodial settings is needed but highly problematic within a prison context.

The researchers focused primarily on Australia, and the conclusions may therefore be of more limited relevance to imprisoned women in other countries.

The paper suggests good practice requirements for delivering trauma-informed care to victimised women prisoners. Non-custodial alternatives to imprisonment are likely to be more sensitive to many female offenders’ layers of vulnerability.

This paper highlights the relationship between women offenders’ sexual victimisation histories, substance abuse, mental illness and offending behaviour, and demonstrates the need for and challenges in delivering trauma-informed care. The originality derives from the examination of the three rules of abuse (and prisons) and how they correlate with multiple vulnerabilities, which leads to the conclusion that prison is not the best place for rehabilitation of most women.