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The purpose of this paper is to explore the relationship between risk characteristics, risk perception and future travel intention in the context of food safety risk.

This research used a structured questionnaire administered to a convenience sample of 715 participants. By using structural equation modelling method, a travel intention framework was successfully developed to test the impact of characteristics of food safety risk on perception of risk, and subsequently on travel intention. In addition, the framework was also tested and compared with different demographic groups.

The research confirms that the characteristics of risk have impact on the two dimensions of perception of risk, namely, likelihood of occurrence and consequence of occurrence in turn travel intention. Furthermore, characteristics of risk affect demographic groups differently.

The finding of this study offers insight into the distinct effects between the two dimensions, namely, likelihood and consequence of risk perception and each dimension consists of different loss components and has different effect on travel intention.

The framework provides insight to the government and travel industry that risk perception is a paramount issue for travellers when making destination decision. As such, the government and travel industry should take action to prevent the occurrence of food risk and to reduce the severity consequence of the risk when it occurs.

This research is one of the few studies generating new insights into perception of food safety risk in international tourism from the social science and marketing perspective.

This study modified, revised and validated a travel safety attitude scale (TSAS) using data collected from Canadian residents with out-of-country travel experiences.

The authors proposed a higher component model (HCM) of TSAS, using a reflective-formative measurement model. In consultation with eight experts, a set of purified TSAS items was revised by checking wording and content. A questionnaire was administered to 531 participants using Amazon Mechanical Turk. The scale was validated with the partial least squares method of structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM), and the analysis was performed using SmartPLS 3.0.

The final results suggested a five-factor solution with 27 items, with a satisfactory level of reliability and validity at the first-order (reflective) and second-order (formative) constructs. The predictive validity result showed that TSAS is negatively related to tourist risk-taking intention.

TSAS advanced research on travel safety attitudes and demonstrated the feasibility of using PLS-SEM in examining the Type II model. Future studies can focus on replicating the study in other countries, adding more variables for predictive validity tests and examining the interrelationship with affective attitudes.

The authors suggested a more proactive approach to assess tourist safety attitudes based on travel safety information (TSI), health concern (HC), vulnerability to crime (VTC), personal safety (PES) and police safety (PS), listed in descending order of importance.

The study results provide directions for destination marketing organizations to allocate resources to maintain a positive travel safety attitude from potential and current tourists.

This study aims to examine the impact of terrorism on risk perception and travel behaviour of the Dutch market towards Sri Lanka.

The research process involved an online self-administered method created with one of the leading research and web-based survey tools called Qualtrics. The questionnaire was filled in by 328 respondents.

Findings indicate that Sri Lankan is perceived to be a relatively safe destination. However, the likeliness of visiting the country is unlikely. The respondents with past travel experience (PTE) perceive Sri Lanka to be safer than those without PTE and are more likely to revisit. Male respondents have a higher safety perception of Sri Lanka than women. Most of the respondents see Sri Lanka as an attractive destination and would consider travelling there with children.

The majority of the respondents are female and aged between 18 to 29 years old. The majority of the respondents’ children were already 19 or older and not accompanying their parents on holiday. This study has managerial implications for Sri Lanka’s tourism board that could work on developing a marketing strategy that focusses on promoting Sri Lanka as a safe destination in combination with all the other unique selling points.

To the best of author’s knowledge, no analysis has been so far published with a focus on the impact of terrorism on risk perception and attitudes of the Dutch tourist towards Sri Lanka. The aim of this paper is to close the existing gap in the literature and to provide valuable knowledge on the influence of terrorism on risk perception and attitudes of the Dutch tourists’ travel behaviour towards Sri Lanka as a destination.

Since early 2020, the world has faced a pandemic that has caused a disruption in our lives, the likes of which have never been seen before. The COVID-19 pandemic changed the way we live, work, communicate, socialize, travel and even plan our future life. The lockdowns and civilian and travel restrictions imposed by countries worldwide have drastically affected citizens' daily routines and mobility. In consequence, all sectors are currently struggling with an unprecedented crisis, as health-related concerns have substantial effects on travel industry at the local, national and global level. The current increase in mortality rate caused by the new coronavirus has affected individuals' risk and safety perceptions and consequently their travel behaviour.

A quantitative research methodology using an online questionnaire was implemented in Portugal, and a sample composed of 1900 answers collected during one year allowed to analyze the impact that the current pandemic has on people's safety and risk perceptions and how it is affecting their daily life and travel behaviours and their willingness to accept civilian and travel restrictions. The results confirmed that the pandemic had a strong impact on Portuguese residents' safety perceptions and their travel and tourism plans. Also, it was possible to conclude that those perceptions have changed over the course of three pandemic waves.

The discussion focuses on the kind of implications this situation may have for tourism destination management and marketing. Study limitations and guidelines for future research are also forwarded.

COVID-19 has resulted in unprecedented changes in the tourism industry and brought tourists' safety and security issues more important. The travel and tourism competitiveness of India as a tourist destination ranked remarkably high in natural and cultural resources, and price competitiveness but relatively low in safety and security. The research aims to evaluate safe tourism in India with an objective view and suggest directions to restore confidence and restart tourism in India after the pandemic. The research studies on safe tourism are assessed, and the importance of safety and security issues in tourism is addressed. It also analyses India as a safe destination and suggests more focus should be on safety to consolidate the tourist destination image of India. A tourist safety framework composed of safety education, safety technology, safety system and safety regulation is suggested with a case study of South Korea. Focus on domestic tourism, a phased approach for safe tourism, 3S Indian campaign, and networks between public and private sectors are suggested for safe tourism in COVID-19. The research would provide a rationale for safe tourism in India and help government and tourism marketers develop policies, set standards or guidelines for tourists and plan coordination with other bodies or industries.

The present chapter has reviewed the opportunities and limitations of the Russian Federation to situate as a leading international destination. There are significant methodological and conceptual issues during the assessment of the world countries and regions safety level. They are caused by lack of the universal assessment method of such risks, incompleteness of the risk criteria taken into consideration, subjective assessment factors, and occasional substitution of the risk factors with the political–competitive ones. Still, the safety issue is one of the most important for a modern tourist. The available information resources, providing their own safety level assessment of the world countries and regions for travellers, differ between them in terms of the selected categories, specified safety levels of the countries and regions and also in terms of understanding and details of the travel risk notion itself. But the greatest challenge for an ordinary tourist, who does not have experience in searching specialised information, is to become familiar with these information resources.

The purpose of this paper is to analyse the impact of peacefulness in the tourists’ country of origin in their main decisions and behaviours when travelling internationally.

A sample of 600 international tourists from 49 countries was divided into five groups according to each respondent’s belonging to a country with a specific level of peacefulness, assessed by the Global Peace Index, to test differences in international travel decision and behaviour patterns.

Travel safety is a critical issue to most tourists, while the peacefulness level of travellers’ country of origin is an important key factor for understanding different travel behaviours and safety perceptions held when going on an international trip, namely, regarding involvement, risk and safety/insecurity perceptions.

This is one of the few studies investigating the impact of peacefulness in the tourist’s country of origin on travel decisions and behaviours, based on the Global Peace Index. Additionally, this study responds to the call of the Prospect Theory regarding general consumption contexts, and adds to the Experiential Consumer Perspective, here applied to tourism consumption.

This study provides guidance to destination and tourism industry managers to attract and segment their market according to tourists’ country of origin, in accordance with its respective level of peacefulness as defined by the Global Peace Index, especially in destinations more affected by terrorism, war, political turmoil, crime and other safety risks.

No published study has tested the impact of peacefulness at home on tourists’ international travel behaviours and decisions yet.

Purpose: The COVID-19 pandemic has fundamentally impacted upon the travel supply chain and influenced tourist behaviours. This is further evidenced in corporate and travel firm concerns surrounding future sales and profitability. Instilling confidence amongst tourists is therefore imperative to ensure consumers continue purchasing the holiday product. However, the management of an intangible and relatively unknown virus has compounded the already difficult management of the tourist experience.

Design/Methodology/Approach: The chapter reviews the impact of COVID-19 in the context of the tourism supply chain and the safety and security measures implemented in destinations. The financial implications of safety and security measures are acknowledged with management challenges and solutions discussed. The chapter underpins its analysis with the use of regional, national and international examples.

Findings: Contingency strategies ranging from quarantine to health and safety certification have been deployed by national governments and regional authorities. However, the complexity of the tourism product and the range of stakeholders involved in its make-up and distribution compounds the ability to ensure safety from the virus.

Practical Implications: The review acknowledges limitations of health and safety measures in the field and forwards alternative suggestions that can be adopted by tourism destinations and enterprises.

Originality/Value: The chapter is novel in that it reviews health and safety and financial security practices in the field as they relate to the COVID-19 pandemic.

The purpose of this paper is to get a better understanding of the influence of terrorism on risk perception and attitudes of the German travel behavior toward Turkey as a destination in crisis, which has been considered one of the biggest losers for 2016.

The research process involved an online self-administered method created with one of the leading research and web-based survey tools called Qualtrics. This tool has been considered useful to reach a wider target, the questionnaire filled in by 305 respondents.

The findings revealed a strong tendency of a low safety perception among the sample toward Turkey. Furthermore, a large proportion indicated a strong unlikelihood of traveling to the country within the upcoming 12 months independently of a past travel experience. In addition, Turkey and Egypt were the countries perceived as most unsafe among the mentioned destinations.

The majority of the respondents of the study were aged between 50 and 59 years and were employed as commercial employee, office or administration workers. The outcomes might be different for a higher sample size with a tendency of various demographic characteristic such as age and profession. Furthermore, the study should be repeated while focusing on respondents with accompanied children on holidays, which only made up a minority for the present research study.

To the best of the knowledge, this is the first study to examine the influence of terrorism on risk perception and attitudes of the German travel behavior toward Turkey and their risk reduction strategies/preventive measures.

Underpinned by sensation-seeking theory (SST) and regulatory focus theory (RFT), this paper highlights the crucial role of adventurousness in self-protective behavior and future travel avoidance. Furthermore, this paper investigates safety-seeking tendency as a moderator and travel anxiety post-COVID-19 as a mediator.

Data were gathered from 574 potential visitors to St. Catherine post-COVID-19 and analyzed using Smart-PLS approach.

Adventurousness negatively and significantly affected travel anxiety, while the latter negatively influenced self-protective behavior and positively influenced future travel avoidance. Besides, the findings proved that travel anxiety partially mediated the adventurousness linkage with self-protective behavior and future travel avoidance. Moreover, safety-seeking tendencies dampened travel anxiety's connection with self-protective behavior and future travel avoidance.

This paper provides valuable insights into travel research in theory and practice to revive tourist attractions post-COVID-19 in developing countries via an adventure tourism pattern. The study helps figure out how to deal with the pandemic and restore the monument of heavenly religions, St. Catherine—sacred mountain peaks, mosques, churches and many monasteries—in addition to its charming and picturesque nature.

The current paper examines a traveler's adventurous nature and post-COVID-19 behavior when visiting St. Catherine and their behaviors related to future avoidance and self-protection. This paper adds the first investigation of travel anxiety and safety-seeking through the lens of SST and RFT theories in the Egyptian tourism context.