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Article
Publication date: 9 December 2020

Nicola Brown, Jenny Burbage and Joanna Wakefield-Scurr

Previous research suggests that many active females are not engaging in sports bra use, despite the positive health benefits. The aim of this study was to establish and compare…

Abstract

Purpose

Previous research suggests that many active females are not engaging in sports bra use, despite the positive health benefits. The aim of this study was to establish and compare sports bra use, preferences and bra fit issues for exercising females in some of the largest and most diverse global underwear markets (the US, the UK and China).

Design/methodology/approach

A survey covering activity levels, sports bra use and preferences, bra issues and demographics was administered via Qualtrics and completed by 3,147 physically active females (aged ≥ 18 years) from the US (n = 1,060), UK (n = 1,050) and China (n = 1,037).

Findings

In general, participants were 25–29 years, 121 to 140 pounds, 34B bra size and pre-menopausal. “I cannot find the right sports bra” was the most frequent breast barrier to exercise (25.4%). Three-quarters of women wore a sports bra during exercise, with significantly higher use in China (83.9%), compared to the UK (67.2%). A third of all participants reported sports bra shoulder straps “digging into the skin”. Sports bra preferences were: compression sports bras with a racer back, wide straps and thick straps in the US and the UK; thin straps in China and adjustable straps and underband, no wire and maximum breast coverage in the US and the UK, including nipple concealment and with padded/moulded cups.

Originality/value

Information provided on differences in sports bra use, preferences and bra issues across three major global markets could be utilised by brands and manufacturers to optimise bra marketing and fit education initiatives and inform future sports bra design and distribution strategies.

Details

Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management: An International Journal, vol. 25 no. 3
Type: Research Article
ISSN: 1361-2026

Keywords

Article
Publication date: 7 April 2023

Elif Yılmaz, Ziynet Öndoğan and Arzu Şen Kılıç

This study aims to develop a sports bra with cosmetic microcapsules that supports the breasts and provides an aesthetically upright and lifted posture by using 28 days period.

Abstract

Purpose

This study aims to develop a sports bra with cosmetic microcapsules that supports the breasts and provides an aesthetically upright and lifted posture by using 28 days period.

Design/methodology/approach

A fitting process was carried out on provided seamless sports bras to determine the criteria that have to be improved considering the desired properties. The new sports bras were produced after the pattern design was developed; cosmetic microcapsules were applied to some of the bras and some were used as a control group to compare the real cosmetic effects. Female subjects tried the newly developed sports bras in a 28-day wear trial. Measurements were taken at certain periods during the wear trials, and the obtained data were analyzed statistically.

Findings

The findings of this study determined that the product provides a decrease in breast girth and increases skin moisture and nipple height after 28 days of regular use due to the effect of cosmetic ingredients released from microcapsules. A great majority of subjects found the breast lifting and supporting property of the sports bra successful and were satisfied with the new shape of the subjects' breasts.

Originality/value

Fitting studies were carried out directly on the female body, and the designed and developed encapsulating type sports bra has been transformed into a cosmetic textile product that gains also cosmetic properties. The cosmetic effects of the bra were investigated with wear trials. On the other hand, the nipple height measure term was defined for the first time and added to the literature within the scope of the study.

Details

International Journal of Clothing Science and Technology, vol. 35 no. 3
Type: Research Article
ISSN: 0955-6222

Keywords

Article
Publication date: 28 March 2022

Adriana Gorea, Amy Dorie and Martha L. Hall

This study aims to investigate if engineered compression variations using moisture-responsive knitted fabric design can improve breast support in seamless knitted sports bras.

Abstract

Purpose

This study aims to investigate if engineered compression variations using moisture-responsive knitted fabric design can improve breast support in seamless knitted sports bras.

Design/methodology/approach

An experimental approach was used to integrate a novel moisture-responsive fabric panel into a seamless knitted bra, and the resulting compression variability in dry versus wet conditions were compared with those of a control bra. Air permeability and elongation testing of between breasts fabric panels was conducted in dry and wet conditions, followed by three-dimensional body scanning of eight human participants wearing the two bras in similar conditions. Questionnaires were used to evaluate perceived comfort and breast support of both bras in both conditions.

Findings

Air permeability test results showed that the novel panel had the highest variance between dry and wet conditions, confirming its moisture-responsive design, and increased its elongation coefficient in both wale and course directions in wet condition. There were significant main effects of bra type and body location on breast compression measurements. Breast circumferences in the novel bra were significantly larger than in the control bra condition. The significant two-way interaction between bra type and moisture condition showed that the control bra lost compressive power in wet condition, whereas the novel bra became more compressive when wet. Changes in compression were confirmed by participants’ perception of tighter straps and drier breast comfort.

Originality/value

These findings add to the limited scientific knowledge of moisture adaptive bra design using engineered knitted fabrics via advanced manufacturing technologies, with possible applications beyond sports bras, such as bras for breast surgery recovering patients.

Details

Research Journal of Textile and Apparel, vol. 28 no. 1
Type: Research Article
ISSN: 1560-6074

Keywords

Article
Publication date: 8 August 2023

Shiyuan Liu, Guangwu Sun, Hongfen Zuo, Xiaona Chen, Shanshan Shang and Hongyan Hu

The purpose of this paper is to predict the effect of bra pad specifications on breast deformation during jumping using a finite element (FE) method. Breast deformation is a key…

Abstract

Purpose

The purpose of this paper is to predict the effect of bra pad specifications on breast deformation during jumping using a finite element (FE) method. Breast deformation is a key concern for women during exercise and can be effectively controlled with sports bras. In most studies, the deformation of breasts when wearing a sports bra is measured using motion capture devices to judge their effectiveness. However, the operation of such devices is highly complex and time-consuming. Computer-aided technology is an efficient way to simulate these experiments.

Design/methodology/approach

In this study, the breast model was obtained using three-dimensional (3D) scanning. Assembling models were obtained for FE analysis using reverse engineering and computer-aided design (CAD) software. The breast deformation results were obtained by completing pre-processing, solving and post-processing in the FE simulation software. To extend the application of these models, pads of different sizes and thicknesses within the bra were constructed to simulate the effect of pads on breast deformation.

Findings

The calculated root mean square errors were <1%, which indicated good agreement between the FE and experimental data in all the models. Nipple deformation was always the largest in most models. The smallest deformation occurred at the superior position of breasts in all models. In addition, larger pads were not effective in reducing breast deformation; however, thicker pads were.

Originality/value

The method developed in this study provides an effective way to predict breast deformation in multiple positions and is convenient for designing compression bras.

Details

International Journal of Clothing Science and Technology, vol. 35 no. 5
Type: Research Article
ISSN: 0955-6222

Keywords

Article
Publication date: 4 October 2011

Deirdre E. McGhee and Julie R. Steele

The purpose of this paper is to measure the breast volume of a large sample of women and their corresponding correctly fitted bra size, in order to demonstrate the range of…

2159

Abstract

Purpose

The purpose of this paper is to measure the breast volume of a large sample of women and their corresponding correctly fitted bra size, in order to demonstrate the range of volumes within each size and the variation amongst different bra sizes.

Design/methodology/approach

Breast volume of 104 women was measured via water displacement and was compared to their professionally fitted bra size, in the one style and brand of bra.

Findings

The mean breast volume of the left and right breast was 642 and 643 ml, ranging from 125 (size 10A) to 1,900 ml (size 24DD). The average professionally fitted bra band size was 12 (range size 10‐24; Australian sizing) and cup size was DD (range A‐G). A range of breast volumes was found to correspond to the same bra size and the volume of any one cup size was not homogenous amongst different band sizes.

Practical implications

Appreciating the range of breast volumes that correspond to each bra size is important in terms of both bra structure and design in order to provide adequate breast support. The large variation in cup volumes associated with different band sizes suggests women should not consider themselves to be an isolated cup size, but rather a combination of a band and cup size.

Originality/value

This is the first study to publish normative breast volume data, and the corresponding correctly fitted bra sizes, for a large sample of women. This is important information for bra design and to assist women achieve correct bra fit and support.

Details

International Journal of Clothing Science and Technology, vol. 23 no. 5
Type: Research Article
ISSN: 0955-6222

Keywords

Article
Publication date: 18 June 2021

Jie Pei, Linsey Griffin, Susan P. Ashdown and Jintu Fan

The purpose of this study is to investigate the shape change of breast during movement to inform product development of bras and other female wearable products.

Abstract

Purpose

The purpose of this study is to investigate the shape change of breast during movement to inform product development of bras and other female wearable products.

Design/methodology/approach

Using the latest 4D body scanning technology, the authors monitored the change of seven non-circumferential breast measurements, including four linear measurements (widths, depth, etc.) and three angular measurements, across nine dynamic scans of a complete gait cycle during running. A series of statistical analysis were conducted to thoroughly investigate the measurement values in dynamic states compared with values extracted from static 3D scans.

Findings

Major findings are as follows: (1) For width-underbust, chest-depth, vertical-acromion and angle ABD, more than half of the dynamic frames presents a significant difference with the static frame. (2) Width-underbust and chest-depth measured in static can underestimate the actual values under motion. (3) vertical-acromion presents a W-shaped general trend for the nine dynamic frames with peaks observed at the keyframes (i.e. when a participant's right or left knee bends the most and rises to its highest level) and lows at the intermediate frames. (4) Angle ABD and angle BAD both present an M-shaped general trend, the exact opposite of a W-shaped trend.

Originality/value

While 3D body scanning and motion capture systems have both contributed significantly to the study of breast, 4D body scanning incorporates the advantages of both technologies and captures the 3D surface of the body during movement at each instant moment. This is one of the first studies that adopt the new technology for apparel applications.

Details

International Journal of Clothing Science and Technology, vol. 33 no. 5
Type: Research Article
ISSN: 0955-6222

Keywords

Article
Publication date: 4 May 2020

Liang Ruixin, Joanne Yip, Winnie Yu, Lihua Chen and Newman Lau

The breasts are mainly fatty and connective tissues with no muscles that directly support them, so wearing sports bras is one of the most effective means of alleviating the…

Abstract

Purpose

The breasts are mainly fatty and connective tissues with no muscles that directly support them, so wearing sports bras is one of the most effective means of alleviating the discomfort of breast movement and potential injury during vigorous physical exercise. However, the design and development processes of traditional sports bras are time-consuming and costly. Hence, a novel method of simulating the static contact pressure between a sports bra and women’s body based on the finite element (FE) and artificial neural network (ANN) models is developed in this study to contribute to the design considerations of sports bras.

Design/methodology/approach

Three-dimensional FE models of a female subject and sports bras with different fabric properties are developed to determine the amount of contact pressure exerted onto the body. The FE results are then verified by measuring the amount of pressure exerted by the sports bra on the skin with pressure sensors. The Taguchi technique is used to effectively reduce the number of trials from 625 to only 25 cases. These 25 results obtained through FE modelling are then used to provide the training set for the ANNs. Finally, a comparison between the FE and ANN results is carried out.

Findings

A novel model of the static contact pressure between a sports bra and human subject based on the FE and ANN methods is presented in this paper. The root mean square error values show that there is only a small difference between the FE and ANN results.

Originality/value

The ANN function established in this study can be used to predict the mechanical behaviours of breasts and has a fundamental impact on the computer-aided design of functional garments in general.

Details

International Journal of Clothing Science and Technology, vol. 32 no. 6
Type: Research Article
ISSN: 0955-6222

Keywords

Article
Publication date: 28 October 2014

Yuxiu Yan, Jie Gao, Zimin Jin and Jianwei Tao

– The purpose of this paper is to clarify the relationship between dynamic clothing pressure of women's sports bras and heart rate variation indexes during playing basketball.

Abstract

Purpose

The purpose of this paper is to clarify the relationship between dynamic clothing pressure of women's sports bras and heart rate variation indexes during playing basketball.

Design/methodology/approach

Totally, 35 healthy females aged between 20 and 24 were employed as subjects. Their heart rate variability (HRV) data and the clothing pressure values when wearing sports bras of different bust sizes during playing basketball were measured using Polar RS800CX heart rate monitor and Flexi Force201 thin film type pressure sensor with MFF series pressure test system. Their subjective comfort evaluations were conducted by five-point Likert scale. Grey correlation analysis is used to determine the correlation degree of heart rate variation indexes and subjective comfort evaluations to identify the indexes preferably associated with subjective comfort. Multiple regression analysis is applied to investigate multiple correlations between pressure of test points and the indexes selected above.

Findings

Combined subjective comfort evaluation with objective HRV evaluation the heart rate variation indexes preferably associated with subjective comfort of these bras were identified, which includes mHR, mRR, RMSSD, pNN50. By the relationship between dynamic clothing pressure and the indexes above, this study finds that the clothing pressure of the chest area during basketball exercise should be controlled in the range of 2.01-4.74 kPa.

Research limitations/implications

The subjects of different body type should be taken into account. Further, the mathematic models from this study show low R2-value so the models should be provided more reliable prediction.

Originality/value

The present study indicates that there is an inevitable connection between heart rate variation indexes and subjective comfort of basketball sports bras and creatively points out that heart rate variation indexes can partly assess the comfortable clothing pressure. The study can offer theoretical basis for sports apparel industry to develop the comfortable basketball sports bra.

Details

International Journal of Clothing Science and Technology, vol. 26 no. 6
Type: Research Article
ISSN: 0955-6222

Keywords

Article
Publication date: 6 July 2012

Debbie Risius, Richard Thelwell, Chris Wagstaff and Joanna Scurr

In addition to the psychological differentiation of older women, ageing has numerous effects on the breast, influencing the volume, density and constitution of the tissue. It is…

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Abstract

Purpose

In addition to the psychological differentiation of older women, ageing has numerous effects on the breast, influencing the volume, density and constitution of the tissue. It is currently unknown how these changes may affect bra requirements and bra consumer behaviour. The purpose of this paper is to explore factors of importance in bras in a cohort of women aged 45 to 65 years, whilst considering purchasing behaviour, brand loyalties and self‐image.

Design/methodology/approach

Following a grounded theoretical perspective, this study was exploratory in nature, including a mixture of five semi‐structured interviews and two focus groups with women, aged 45 to 65 years, to discuss bra habits, considerations, and influential factors of purchasing. Data were content analysed with additional frequency analysis.

Findings

The paper provides five key dimensions within which older women focus their attentions when purchasing bras. These are aesthetics, comfort, practicalities of bra purchase, breast support and psychological aspects. Participants purpose their bra requirements to be multifaceted and changing with increasing age.

Practical implications

Bra manufacturers and distributers may need to consider these factors when marketing towards an older population of women, to optimise products and subsequent sales.

Originality/value

The paper advances the literature by providing fundamental information on the key areas of consideration for older bra consumers.

Details

Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management: An International Journal, vol. 16 no. 3
Type: Research Article
ISSN: 1361-2026

Keywords

Article
Publication date: 18 August 2021

Julia Wilfling, George Havenith, Margherita Raccuglia and Simon Hodder

Sports garments play an important role in the well-being of an athlete by protecting the wearer from changing environmental conditions and providing a comfortable feel. Clothing…

Abstract

Purpose

Sports garments play an important role in the well-being of an athlete by protecting the wearer from changing environmental conditions and providing a comfortable feel. Clothing requirements have changed in recent years and demand for apparel with a higher comfort performance has been rising. Hence, the purpose of this study is to explore consumers’ expectations and perception of comfort and to examine how different textiles are perceived by consumers to provide useful knowledge that allows to engineer comfort into fabrics and sports garments.

Design/methodology/approach

This online survey comprised 292 respondents, classified by sex, age, nationality and physical activity. The respondents were asked a total of 18 questions through the Bristol Online Survey tool to explore expectation, perception and preference of clothing comfort, specifically of sportswear.

Findings

Fit and comfort are closely linked together, both forming part of the clothing comfort concept. When purchasing garments online, the haptics of fabrics were identified as a crucial missing parameter. However, priorities of attributes within the concept varied according to the person’s sex and nationality. Women put more emphasis on garment fit and showed a higher need for tactile input, whereas men prioritised physiological comfort descriptors, i.e. properties which facilitate thermoregulation. Furthermore, there is an increased importance of physiological comfort parameters for people exercising for 10 or more hours per week. Finally, it was possible to identify common associations and preferences for textile materials (cotton, polyester, cotton/polyester blend and wool). However, consideration should be taken concerning sex and nationality.

Originality/value

Sex and nationality are parameters modulating the clothing comfort concept and the conceptualised feel of materials. Therefore, the sex and nationality of the end-consumer should be considered during the development phase of sports garments and particular attention should be given to the targeted market in which these will be sold.

Details

Research Journal of Textile and Apparel, vol. 26 no. 4
Type: Research Article
ISSN: 1560-6074

Keywords

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