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The purpose of this paper is to present results of practical experience of cold starting a gasoline engine on low volatility fuel suitable for unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) deployment.

Experimental research and development is carried out via dynamometer testing of systems capable of achieving cold start of a spark ignition UAV engine on kerosene JET A-1 fuel.

Repeatable cold starts have been satisfactorily achieved at ambient temperatures of 5°C. The approximate threshold for warm engine restart has also been established.

For safety and supply logistical reasons, the elimination of the use of gasoline fuel offers major advantages not only for UAVs but also for other internal combustion engine-powered equipment to be operated in military theatres of operation. For gasoline crankcase-scavenged two-stroke cycle engines, this presents development challenges in terms of modification of the lubrication strategy, achieving acceptable performance characteristics and the ability to successfully secure repeatable engine cold start.

The majority of UAVs still operate on gasoline-based fuels. Successful modification to allow low volatility fuel operation would address single fuel policy objectives.

This paper aims to present experimental experience of heavy fuelling of a spark ignition crankcase scavenged two-stroke cycle unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) engine, particularly focusing on the effects of compression ratio variation, and to cross-correlate with the results of fluid dynamic modelling of the engine and fuels used.

One-dimensional modelling of the engine has been conducted using WAVE software supported by experimental dynamometer testing of a spark ignition UAV engine to construct a validated computational model using gasoline and kerosene JET A-1 fuels.

The investigation into the effects of compression ratio variation via fluid dynamic simulation and experimental testing has allowed an assessment of the approach for improving heavy fuel operation of UAV engines using auxiliary transfer port fuel injection. The power level achieved with reduced compression ratio heavy fuel operation is equal to 15.35 kW at 6,500 revolutions per minute compared to 16.27 kW from the standard gasoline engine or a reduction of 5.7%.

The studied engine is specifically designed for UAV applications. The validation of the computational models to explore the effects of compression ratio and heavy fuel injection on the solution and cost is supported by experimental tests.

The application of auxiliary port fuel injection of heavy fuel and associated compression ratio optimisation offers an alternative approach to achieve the safety and logistical challenges of the single fuel policy for UAVs. The application of WAVE to simulate crankcase scavenged two-stroke cycle engines has been applied in very few cases. This study shows further exploratory work in that context.

The purpose of this paper is to compare the combustion characteristics, including the combustion pressure, heat release rate (HRR), coefficient of variation (COV) of indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP), flame development period and combustion duration, of aviation kerosene fuel, namely, rocket propellant 3 (RP-3), and gasoline on a two-stoke spark ignition engine.

This paper is an experimental investigation using a bench test to reflect the combustion performance of two-stroke spark ignition unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) engine on gasoline and RP-3 fuel.

Under low load conditions, the combustion performance and HRR of burning RP-3 fuel were shown to be worse than those of gasoline. Under high load conditions, the average IMEP and the COV of IMEP of burning RP-3 fuel were close to those of gasoline. The difference in the flame development period between gasoline and RP-3 fuel was similar.

Gasoline fuel has a low flash point, high-saturated vapour pressure and relatively high volatility and is a potential hazard near a naked flame at room temperature, which can create significant security risks for its storage, transport and use. Adopting a low volatility single RP-3 fuel of covering all vehicles and equipment to minimize the number of different devices with the use of a various fuels and improve the application safeties.

Most two-stroke spark ignition UAV engines continue to combust gasoline. A kerosene-based fuel operation can be applied to achieve a single-fuel policy.

This research explores the effect of bioenergy use on carbon dioxide releases in 28 European Union (EU-28) affiliated members starting from 1990 to 2018.

Applying panels' fixed effect (FE) estimator and random effect (RE) estimator, the regressed findings are highly validated as they were robust by panel least square dummy variable corrected (LSDVC) and pooled ordinary least square (Pooled OLS) estimators.

The findings claimed that carbon dioxide releases decrease with an incline in bioenergy use and trade openness. On the other hand, fossil-fuel and economic growth indicators mounting carbon dioxide releases. The result implies that carbon dioxide releases in EU-28 region members can be mitigated significantly by mounting the quantity bioenergy use in generation channel. This will mostly participate in combating environmental pollution.

The study suggests for EU28 region members to enhance the portion of bioenergy in their fuel access to decrease emitted carbon dioxide. Governors in EU28 members should mainly encourage bioenergy expansion to raise its security and availability. The politicians of the EU28 members must assert on efficacy and productivity of bioenergy production to achieve energy accessibility and decrease dependency on conventional energy.

This research applies the recently improved model, the panel data analysis approach, which considered for the first-class impacts of estimators on the dependent variable and deals with the several problems of the common Pooled OLS estimator's manner and performance. Finally, this research contributes to the previous studies on ecological sustainability by examining the presence correlation among carbon dioxide emissions, bioenergy sustainability, trade openness, fossil fuel and gross domestic product in the EU28 region. Hence, it proves our research novelty, originality and contribution to the body of knowledge.

European air transport policy, emerged through the confluence of case law and legislation, in four broad areas: liberalization, safety and security, greening, and the external policy. Following the implementation of the single market for air transport, policy shifted to liberalizing and regulating associated services and in recent years to greening, the external aviation policy, and safety and security. Inclusion of air transport in the Environmental Trading Scheme of the European Union exemplifies the European Commission’s proactive stand on bringing the industry in line with emission reduction trajectories of other industries. However, the bid to include flights to third countries in the trading scheme pushed the EU into a controversial position, causing the Commission to halt implementation and to give ICAO time to seek a global multilateral agreement. The chapter also discusses how the nationality clauses in air services agreements breached the Treaty of Rome, and a court ruling to that effect enabled the EC to extend EU liberalization policies beyond the European Union, resulting in the Common Aviation Area with EU fringe countries and the Open Aviation Area with the USA. Another important area of progress was aviation safety, where the EU region is unsurpassed in the world, yet the Commission has pushed the boundary even further, by establishing the European Safety Agency to oversee the European Aviation Safety Management System. Another important area of regulatory development was aviation security, a major focus after the woeful events in 2001, but increasingly under industry scrutiny on costs and effectiveness. The chapter concludes by arguing that in the coming decade, the EU will strive to strengthen its position as a global countervailing power, symbolized in air transport by a leadership position in environmental policy and international market liberalization, exemplified in the EU’s external aviation policy.

The performance of earthmoving operations, in terms of emissions, production and cost, is dependent on many variables and has been the study of a number of publications. Such publications look at typical operation design and management, without establishing what the penalties or bonuses might be for non-standard, but still observed, practices. To fill this gap in knowledge, this paper examines alternative loading policies of zero waiting-time loading, fractional loading and double-sided loading, and compares the performance of these with standard single-sided loading.

Original recursive relationships, that are amenable to Monte Carlo simulation, are derived. Case study data are used to illustrate the emissions, production and cost penalties or bonuses.

Double-sided loading contributes the least impact to the environment and is the most cost effective. Zero waiting-time loading performs the worst in terms of environmental impact and cost. Minimizing truck waiting times through using fractional loading is generally not an attractive policy because it leads to an increase in unit emissions and unit costs. The consequences of adopting fractional loading are detailed. Optimum unit emissions and optimum unit cost are coincident with respect to fleet size for single- and double-sided loading policies. That is, by minimizing unit cost, as in traditional practice, then least impact on the environment is obtained. Not minimizing unit cost will lead to unnecessary emissions.

The results of this paper will be of interest to those designing and managing earthmoving operations.

All modeling and results presented in the paper do not exist elsewhere in the literature.

Aim of the present monograph is the economic analysis of the role of MNEs regarding globalisation and digital economy and in parallel there is a reference and examination of some legal aspects concerning MNEs, cyberspace and e‐commerce as the means of expression of the digital economy. The whole effort of the author is focused on the examination of various aspects of MNEs and their impact upon globalisation and vice versa and how and if we are moving towards a global digital economy.