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Negativity towards a brand is typically conceived as a significant problem for brand managers. This paper aims to show that negativity towards a brand can represent an opportunity for companies when brand polarization occurs. To this end, the paper offers a new conception of the brand polarization phenomenon and reports exploratory findings on the benefits of consumers’ negativity towards brands in the context of brand polarization.

To develop a conception of brand polarization, the paper builds on research on polarizing brands and extends it by integrating insights from systematic literature reviews in three bodies of literature: scholarship on brand rivalry and, separately, polarization in political science and social psychology. Using qualitative data from 22 semi-structured interviews, the paper explores possible advantages of brand polarization.

This paper defines the brand polarization phenomenon and identifies multiple perspectives on brand polarization. Specifically, the findings highlight three distinct parties that can benefit from brand polarization: the polarizing brand as an independent entity; the brand team behind the polarizing brand; and the passionate consumers involved with the polarizing brand. The data reveal specific advantages of brand polarization associated with the three parties involved.

Managers of brands with a polarizing nature could benefit from having identified a group of lovers and a group of haters, as this could allow them to improve their focus when developing and implementing the brands’ strategies.

This exploratory study is the first explicitly focusing on the brand polarization phenomenon and approaches negativity towards brands as a potential opportunity.

This paper has two purposes: to use polarisation to identify variations in loyalty and to apply polarisation to an important non‐brand attribute, price.

A comprehensive revealed preference data set of wine purchases is used to apply polarisation. Polarisation was defined in two ways: as a function of the beta binomial distribution (BBD) to give a measure of loyalty for an alternative; and as a function of the Dirichlet multinomial distribution (DMD) to give a baseline level of loyalty. Variations were identified by analysing the differences between the BBD and DMD.

Polarisation was shown to be one way of identifying variation across price tiers. In the empirical example used, the DMD model is violated with the price tiers not being directly substitutable with one another. Buyers show excess loyalty towards the lowest and highest price tier levels. One tier shows “change‐of‐pace” loyalty. Small brands do better when they focus on high loyalty tiers, middle brands compete in the change‐of‐pace tier and large brands do well across all tiers.

Very little work has been undertaken into price tier loyalty and no known empirical research has been undertaken into behavioural loyalty to price tiers in wine. Very little empirical research has considered the association between excess loyalty for attribute levels (such as price tiers) and the existence of niche, change‐of‐pace and reinforcing brands.

This paper aims to study the growth and properties of potentiostatic passive films formed on iron electrodes immersed in pH 8.9‐11.0 phosphate solutions.

First, passive films were grown potentiostatically on pure iron electrodes under different experimental conditions (namely the Na₂HPO₄ concentration, time and potential of polarization, solution pH and temperature). Subsequently, the properties of the resulting passive layer were evaluated by electrochemical measurements (open circuit potential and potentiodynamic polarization measurements) and scanning electron microscopy.

The formation of passive films on iron electrodes immersed in weak‐alkaline phosphate solutions was found to occur in three main steps, being the Na₂HPO₄ concentration a very important parameter to promote reduction of iron dissolution. Films with protective properties could be obtained within at least 30 s of polarization at +0.50 V/SCE. The effect of the polarization potential was interpreted according to previous potentiodynamic data and the influences of solution pH and temperature follow thermodynamic laws.

In‐situ surface analytical techniques such as extended X‐ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) and elipsometry coupled to electrochemical measurements can elucidate more information on the film growth process, and in turn on resulting properties.

This contribution provides useful insights into the potentiostatic behaviour of iron in alkaline phosphate solutions.

The purpose of this paper is to develop a new two-dimensional differential concentration corrosion mathematical model based on the knowledge that oxygen distribution on the surface of the seawater pipe is two-dimensional.

The ionic conductive layer element near the pipeline wall is regarded as the research object, and the finite element method is adopted to obtain the oxygen distribution in the layers and the natural corrosion potential and natural corrosion current of each element. Then, these element sets are regarded as a whole circuit and each element as a node on the circuit; the equation is satisfied by the corrosion potential after polarization is derived for each element according to Kirchhoff’s second law.

Matlab is used to solve the equation sets, and the overall corrosion current is calculated. The results are quite different from those considered without the differential concentration corrosion. If the differential concentration corrosion is not considered, the location with high oxygen concentration on the pipeline wall has a large corrosion potential and current. If corrosion is considered, the potential will cause polarization and the positions with original higher corrosion potential will produce anodic polarization. Meanwhile, the speed of corrosion also decreases. At the same time, the position with original lower corrosion potential will produce cathodic polarization, and the corrosion current is also increased, namely, the corrosion current and the potential will be homogenized.

A two-dimensional model for the study of concentration corrosion is proposed creatively. Based on the knowledge of electricity, a discrete equation of corrosion potential after polarization is derived. The distribution of corrosion potential and corrosion current is obtained by solving the equation, and the mechanism of concentration corrosion is analyzed. The law of concentration polarization corrosion is also obtained.

Presents the results of direct current polarization and exposure measurements of alloy steels, used as construction materials for flue‐gas desulphurization units. Ascertains that in some cases there is unconformity between results of classic anodic cyclic polarization and results of laboratory exposure. Proposes a modified methodology for the evaluation of the susceptibility of alloy steels to pitting (multiple anodic polarization). Discusses results on the basis of the tested steels’ composition analysis and results of polarization measurements. Determines the conditions in which the pitting resistance equivalent should be used. Tests have been carried out in electrolyte‐simulating conditions in the purified gas zone of the wet flue‐gas desulphurization units. On the basis of the experimental data, determines flexibility for pitting corrosion of investigated materials.

The purpose of this paper is to explore the influence of hole on shielding effectiveness (SE) of electromagnetic shielding (EMS) fabric under incident polarization wave, and to propose a “Key Size” theory to explain the influence mechanism.

“Key Size” parameters describing hole shape are established, and a number of representative samples with rectangular and oval holes are made. SE of the samples are tested by waveguide testing system. Influence of the hole on the SE of the samples is analyzed according to vertical or horizontal maximum size and polarization wave direction. Finally, the “Key Size theory” and “Secondary Size theory” are proposed to explain the influencing mechanism.

The hole influences on the SE are related to the vertical and the horizontal maximum size of the holes and the direction of the polarization wave. As the direction of the polarization wave is vertical (or horizontal), greater maximum size results in lower SE. As the maximum size is constant, greater maximum size causes lower SE. As the maximum size reaches to a certain value, a dividing point of the SE occurs. As the direction of the polarization wave is consistent with the direction of the maximum size, same hole area results in same SE.

The explored influences and mechanism provide an important guiding reference for the hole design of the EMS fabric, and can be applied to the holes design of the EMS garment, composite materials, and tents.

The purpose of this paper is to study the dynamics of the distribution of per capita income of Indian states in the post‐reform period, in order to identify trends towards convergence‐club formation, polarization or stratification during this period.

The authors adopt the “distribution dynamics” framework that involves estimating kernel density functions, stochastic kernels and ergodic distributions in order to identify these trends.

The results show that there is polarization in India in the post‐reform period and this is due to the contrary growth dynamics of the middle‐income states resulting in the “vanishing middle” of the distribution.

This is the first study that highlights the contrary growth dynamics among the middle‐income states as the driving force behind the polarization of Indian states in the post‐reform period.

This paper aims to reduce the cost, limit the time and increase raw material source availability, coral aggregate seawater concrete (CASC) composed of coral, coral sand, seawater and cement can be widely used for the construction of ports, levees, airports and roads to achieve practical engineering values. However, the naturally porous coral structure and abundant Cl⁻ in the seawater and coral lead to extremely severe reinforcement corrosion for CASC. It is well known that Cl⁻ is the main cause of reinforcement corrosion in the marine environment. Therefore, it is necessary to research the reinforcement corrosion of CASC in the marine environment.

In this study, linear polarization resistance was adopted to test the linear polarization curves of reinforcement in CASC with different exposure times. E_corr, R_p, I_corr and V_corr were calculated according to the weak electrochemical polarization theory and Stern–Geary formula. The effects of concrete cover thickness, exposure time, reinforcement types and inhibitor on reinforcement corrosion in CASC were analysed. The reinforcement corrosion degradation rule was determined, which provided theoretical support for the durability improvement, security assessment, service life prediction and service quality control of CASC structures in marine islands and reef engineering.

The corrosion resistance was enhanced with increased concrete cover thickness, and the concrete cover thickness for organic new coated steel should be at least 5.5 cm to reduce the reinforcement corrosion risks in CASC structures. The corrosion resistance of different types of reinforcements followed the rule: 2205 duplex stainless steel > 316 stainless steel > organic new coated steel > zinc-chromium coated steel > common steel. In the early exposure stage, the anti-corrosion effectiveness of the calcium nitrate inhibitor (CN) was superior to that for the amino alcohol inhibitor (AA). With the extension of exposure time, the decreasing rate of anticorrosion effectiveness of CN was higher than that of AA.

Reinforcement corrosion of CASC in a marine environment was studied. Concrete cover thickness, exposure time, reinforcement type and inhibitor influenced the reinforcement corrosion were investigated. New technique of reinforcement anti-corrosion in marine engineering was proposed. Possible applications of CASC in marine engineering structures were suggested.

The purpose of this study is to develop a method of thermodynamic and kinetic evaluation of corrosion properties of alloys.

Method of estimation of corrosion-electrochemical behaviour of multicomponent alloys is proposed. The method takes into account both thermodynamic and kinetic data and is based on mutual construction of equilibrium and polarization potential – pH diagrams. The usage of the proposed method is illustrated in the example of the structural steel 20KT.

Passivation of steel 20KT is determined by formation of oxide film based on magnetite (Fe₃O₄); silicon, manganese and copper oxides as well as manganese sulphides can be locally included into the inner side of the passivation layer. An experimental potential – pH diagram of steel 20KT is constructed. Interpreting the results of polarization measurements revealed good agreement between equilibrium and polarization potential – pH diagrams.

It is shown in the example of structural steel 20KT that for interpretation of experimental potential – pH diagrams, one should compare them with corresponding equilibrium diagrams for multicomponent alloys rather than with Pourbaix diagrams for pure metals. The corrosion properties of steel 20KT are estimated using equilibrium and polarization potential – pH diagrams.

This article presents the galvanostatic anodic oxidation of two types of stainless steel alloys, ferritic (15.03% Cr) and austenitic (20.45% Cr, 8.37% Ni), in molten NaNO₃‐KNO₃ eutectic mixture at different temperatures ranging from 673‐873K. At a temperature of 673K the shape of polarization curves for the alloys is complex, while at higher temperatures it is simple. The passivity potential range was calculated as the difference between the passivation potential, E_p, and the breakdown potential, E_b. The value of E_b – E_p decreases with the increase of temperature. The amount of iron, chromium and nickel dissolved in the melt was determined after each experiment using atomic absorption spectroscopy. The composition and structure of the corrosion products formed on the surface of electrodes were examined by X‐ray diffraction analysis. Corrosion parameters derived from the polarization curves are calculated; these are: polarization resistance at low current densities, R_p, exchange current density, i_o, corrosion current density, i_corr, passivation current density, i_p. It was found that the increase of temperature increases i_o, i_corr, and i_p while R_p, decreases. From these results it was found that, under the given conditions, the austenitic stainless steel alloy is more corrosion resistant than the ferritic one. The activation energy of corrosion was estimated for the two alloys.