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The onset of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has led to loss of lives and jobs and other adverse effects on persons, families and businesses. With its frightening tendencies, it was a sigh of relief with the discovery of vaccines to mitigate its disastrous effects. However, participation in the vaccination exercise in Ghana has been slow and unencoraging. This paper sought to identify the factors that influence the perception and willingness of individuals to receive the COVID-19 vaccine.

For this study, structured questionnaires were administered to 1,350 respondents selected at random by way of purposive sampling from specific regions that were also randomly selected. Out of this sample, a total of 1,296 were found to be in useable form. The probit model estimation with marginal effects was used to determine both perception and willingness to take the COVID-19 vaccine.

The authors observed that increases in age and manufacturing sector workers were positively associated with vaccine perception, while both males and females residing in the Bono and Central regions had negative perceptions toward the vaccine. Among male workers, education and living in Accra had a negative relationship with vaccine perception, while for female workers, education had a positive influence on vaccine perception. Additionally, workers in the transport sector and those residing in urban areas were more inclined to receive the COVID-19 vaccine in Ghana, regardless of gender. Again, the authors observed that larger household size, people with no formal education and females with primary education were more willing. Also, increase in age for males reduced willingness, while residents in the greater Accra region were less willing to take the vaccine.

To the best of the authors' belief and knowledge, the observations and recommendations made are consistent with theory and empirical studies and contribute immensely to the discussions about the most effective ways of combating the COVID-19 pandemic. It also offers a nuanced perspective on how policy-makers can enact policies that ensure efficient and effective ways of dealing with future epidemics.

The COVID-19 pandemic and the travellers’ behaviour towards travel risk is an emerging issue. Nonetheless, the travellers’ perceived COVID-19 impacts, travel risk perception, health and safety perception and travel avoidance concerning protection motivation theory is unnoticed. Following the protection motivation theory, the current study investigates the direct and indirect relationships between perceived COVID-19 impacts and travel avoidance. Moreover, the travellers’ cognitive perceptions of risk may vary with their demographic characteristics; therefore, the present study aims to test the differences in group-specific parameter estimates using a multi-group analysis.

The authors approached travellers from Tianjin, China using different communication services, including WeChat and email, through a snowball sampling technique. The study used 553 valid questionnaires for analysis.

The results of 553 questionnaires in structural equation modelling (SEM) with AMOS 21 indicated that travellers’ perceived Covid-19 impacts positively correlate with travel avoidance. The study model based on protection motivation theory specifies that travel risk perception and health and safety perception as a cognitive mediating process partially mediated the relationship between perceived COVID-19 impacts and travel avoidance. The findings specified that during COVID-19, travellers assessed the severity of travel risks and adopted preventive measures which influenced their travel behaviour and led to travel avoidance. The multi-group analysis results indicated no difference in perception for gender and education; however, concerning age, the significant nested p-value specifies a difference in perception.

The study offers implications for policymakers and the tourism industry to understand the travellers’ perceptions of travel during the pandemic and ensure health and safety measures to encourage travelling and reviving the tourism industry.

The application of protection motivation theory to analyse the travellers’ perceived COVID-19 impacts and travel avoidance in the presence of travel risk perception and health and safety perceptions as a cognitive mediating process is novel.

COVID-19大流行下的旅行风险问题日益重要。目前, 有关旅游者COVID-19影响感知、旅行风险感知以及健康安全感知与避免旅行之间关系的问题尚未引起学者广泛关注。基于保护动机理论, 本文对COVID-19影响感知与避免旅行之间的直接关系和间接关系进行深入研究。鉴于旅游者旅行风险认知因其人口特征而异, 本文采纳多组分析来检验群体间特定参数估计差异。

采用滚雪球抽样方法在中国天津利用微信和电子邮件共收集了553份有效问卷。

结构方程模型分析结果显示, 旅游者Covid-19影响感知与避免旅行之间呈正相关关系。基于保护动机理论的研究模型表明, 旅行风险感知和健康安全感知作为认知中间过程, 在COVID-19影响感知与避免旅行之间起到部分中介作用。这说明在COVID-19期间, 旅游者首先评估旅行风险等级并采取预防措施, 而这将影响他们的旅行行为, 甚至导致放弃旅行。此外, 多组分析结果表明, Covid-19影响感知在性别和受教育程度上并不存在显著差异, 但在年龄上差异显著。

研究对于政策制定者和旅游业界理解旅游者在疫情期间对旅行的看法以及采取健康和安全措施鼓励游客出游进而实现旅游业复苏具有重要启示。

基于保护动机理论, 引入旅行风险感知和健康安全感知作为中介变量来分析旅游者Covid-19影响感知对避免旅行的影响是本研究的重要创新点。此外, 本研究通过检验Covid-19影响感知在受访者人口学特征上的差异也对现有研究具有一定理论贡献。

La pandemia de COVID-19 y el comportamiento de los viajeros hacia el riesgo del viaje es un asunto emergente. No obstante, los impactos percibidos de COVID-19 por los viajeros, la percepción del riesgo de viaje, la percepción de salud y seguridad, así como la evitación de viajes con respecto a la teoría de la motivación de protección es desapercibida. Por lo tanto, el estudio actual basado en la teoría de la motivación de protección investiga las relaciones directas e indirectas entre los impactos percibidos del COVID-19 y la evitación del viaje. Las percepciones cognitivas del riesgo de los individuos varían con sus características demográficas; por lo tanto, el estudio actual que utiliza un análisis de multigrupo prueba las diferencias en las estimaciones de los parámetros de grupo específico.

Nos acercamos a los viajeros de Tianjin, China, utilizando diferentes servicios de comunicación, incluidos WeChat y email, a través de una técnica de muestreo de bola de nieve. El estudio utilizó 553 cuestionarios válidos para el análisis.

Los resultados empíricos de los 533 cuestionarios en los modelos de ecuaciones estructurales (MES) indican que los impactos percibidos de Covid-19 se correlacionan positivamente con la evitación del viaje. El resultado implica que los encuestados primero evalúan los riesgos y luego toman las decisiones de viajar; por consiguiente, los hallazgos apoyaron la teoría de la motivación de protección. Los hallazgos también mostraron que la percepción del riesgo de viaje y la percepción de salud y seguridad median entre los impactos percibidos de Covid-19 y la evitación de viajes. Además, los resultados del análisis de multigrupo indican que para el género y la educación, no existe una diferencia; sin embargo, en cuanto a la edad, existe una diferencia significativa en la percepción.

Las implicaciones del estudio son importantes para que los legisladores y la industria del turismo comprendan la percepción de los viajeros durante la pandemia y garanticen las medidas de salud y seguridad para animar a viajar.

La aplicación de la teoría de la motivación de protección para analizar los impactos percibidos de COVID-19 por los viajeros y la evitación del viaje en la presencia de la percepción de riesgo de viaje y la percepción de salud y seguridad como variables mediadoras es novedosa. También, el estudio actual contribuye a la literatura a través de probar el modelo teórico sobre las características demográficas de los encuestados.

This study aims to reveal both the effect of the perception of COVID-19 on avoidance behaviors and the mediating role of the perception of personal control in this relationship. COVID-19 emerged in December 2019 and since then, it has spread globally in a short period and has affected people socially, economically and culturally.

The data for the research was collected from 418 participants during COVID-19, through online questionnaires. The obtained data were analyzed through AMOS and SPSS software using structural equation modeling.

The research results show that some perceptions of COVID-19 affect avoidance behavior and that personal control has a mediating role. It has also been found that gender plays a moderating role in the relationship between COVID-19 and avoidance behavior. It has been found that women are especially more sensitive compared to men in perceiving COVID-19. This study also found that perception of COVID-19 changes depending on income.

After the pandemic is over, people will get in contact with each other less than before, and trade will change accordingly. People will avoid shopping in crowded places, and consumer behaviors will undergo different changes. All of these results considered, it is expected that avoidance behavior will cause some permanent behavioral changes in consumers.

The study answers the critical question about the effect of the perception of COVID-19 on avoidance behavior. Furthermore, the role of income level, gender and education in this relationship will be highlighted.

Based on text content analysis using big data, this study aims to explore differences in guest perceptions of peer-to-peer accommodations before and after COVID-19 to provide suggestions for the development of these properties in China postpandemic.

A guest perception dictionary was established by collecting Ctrip customer reviews of peer-to-peer accommodations. After data cleaning, thematic word analysis and semantic association network analysis were used to explore perceptions and thematic differences before and after COVID-19.

This research constructed a multidimensional framework of guest-perceived values for peer-to-peer accommodation in the context of COVID-19. The findings showed that the emphasis on functionality in peer-to-peer accommodation changed; perceived emotional values associated with peer-to-peer stays were more complex; perceived social values decreased, host–guest interactions were reduced and online communication became a stronger trend; tourist preferences for types of experiences changed, and people changed their destination selections; perceived conditional value was reflected in perceived risks, and the perceptions of environmental health, service and physical risks increased.

This research has constructed a multidimensional framework of tourist perceived value on the basis of peer-to-peer accommodation context and epidemic background and has thus shown the changes in tourist perceived value of peer-to-peer accommodation before and after COVID-19.

To the best of authors’ knowledge, this research constitutes the first attempt to explore the perceptual differences for peer-to-peer accommodations before and after COVID-19 based on an extensive data set of online reviews from multiple provinces of China.

The tourism industry has been adversely affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. Considering Turkey's global importance in both domestic and foreign tourism, being able to determine consumers' vacation plans and risk perceptions during the COVID-19 pandemic has become more important than ever. This study aims to quantify the effect of COVID-19 on the consumers' perceived risk and behavioral intention in the context of the tourism industry. An online questionnaire was conducted on 234 Turkish participants between July and August 2020. In this study we compare the risk perceptions of consumers who plan to take a vacation and those who do not, in six dimensions regarding the perceived risk of Turkish tourists after the first wave COVID-19 pandemic in order to provide further insight. Therefore, Exploratory Factor analysis (EFA), Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and t-test analyses were performed. The results revealed that risk perceptions of those who plan their vacation post COVID-19 are lower. Participants who plan to soon go on vacation have lower psychological, equipment and cost, performance, social, and physical risk perceptions regarding the COVID-19 pandemic than those who do not have a vacation plan. These findings aid our understanding how risk perception affects behavioral willingness to travel.

This study explores the interaction effects of organizational conflict history and employees' situational perceptions of COVID-19 on negative megaphoning and turnover intention.

Survey data (N = 476) were collected from US citizens, who self-identified as full-time employees, through Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk) in August 2020.

Organizational conflict history (i.e. highly conflict-prone vs less conflict-prone workplaces) interacts with employees' situational perceptions of COVID-19 (i.e. inactive vs active publics) in affecting employees' negative megaphoning and turnover intention toward their organizations. Employees who are active publics on COVID-19 in highly conflict-prone workplaces reported the highest negative megaphoning and turnover intention. On the contrary, employees who are inactive publics on COVID-19 in less conflict-prone workplaces reported the lowest negative megaphoning and turnover intention.

COVID-19 is an uncontrollable, exogenous crisis for organizations. While it is expected that employees in highly conflict-prone workplaces would report higher negative megaphoning and turnover intention, this study found that employees' situational perceptions of COVID-19 would further exacerbate the effects. This finding reflects the importance of managing organizational conflicts continuously and preemptively while also segmenting and cultivating relationships with employees based on their situational perceptions of issues and crises.

This study identified the significance of the interaction of cross-situational factors (e.g. employees' recollection of organizational conflict history) and situational factors (e.g. employees' situational perceptions of issues) in affecting employees' negative behavioral intentions in crisis situations, even if the crises are exogenous and uncontrollable.

This study aims to explore the factors influencing the post-pandemic intentions of Chinese residents to participate in outbound travel. The mechanism by which residents' perception of the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) influenced their outbound travel intentions are studied.

This study developed an extended theory of planned behavior (TPB) model and used structural equations to analyze data received from 432 questionnaires. Responses were obtained through a combination of online surveys and a traditional paper-based distribution of questionnaires.

Results showed that attitude, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control and past outbound travel behavior have significant positive effects on post-pandemic outbound travel intentions. Although the perception of COVID-19 directly and negatively influences outbound travel intentions, it also has an indirect influence on outbound travel intentions through the mediating effect of non-pharmaceutical interventions. The authors also found that risk tolerance has a negative moderating effect on the direct impact of residents' perception of COVID-19 on their travel intentions.

The findings can serve as a reference for formulating appropriate tourism development policies by government agencies, tourism management departments and tourism enterprises in destination countries.

This study developed an extended TPB model by adding more constructs into the TPB model. Compared with the original TPB model, the extended TPB model has better explanatory power of post-pandemic travel intentions. The study also provides evidence for the applicability of the TPB model in studying travel intentions within the context of major public health emergencies and has expanded the application scope of the TPB model.

新冠肺炎疫情后中国居民出境旅游意愿的影响因素研究······································——基于疫情感知的扩展TPB模型

摘要

本研究致力于探索新冠肺炎疫情后（以下简称“疫情”）中国居民出境旅游意愿的影响因素, 以及疫情感知对出境旅游意愿的作用机制。

本文以TPB理论为基础, 通过构建扩展TPB模型, 并利用结构方程对432份问卷进行数据分析。问卷通过网络发放与传统纸质问卷调研相结合的方式获得。

态度、主观规范、感知行为控制及过去出境旅游行为对中国居民疫情后出境旅游意愿具有显著正向影响; 疫情感知在直接负向影响出境旅游意愿的同时, 还通过非药物干预行为的中介作用间接影响出境旅游意愿; 在疫情感知对出境旅游意愿的直接影响中, 风险容忍度起着负向调节作用。

研究结果对旅游目的地政府、旅游管理部门及旅游企业制定相应旅游发展政策具有一定前瞻性参考价值。

本文通过在原始TPB模型的基础上加入更多变量, 进而构建了扩展TPB模型。与原始模型相比, 扩展TPB模型对疫情蔓延背景下中国居民疫情后出境旅游意愿有着更好的解释力和预测力。本文证实了在突发重大公共卫生事件背景下TPB模型对于研究旅游意愿的适用性, 扩展了TPB模型的应用范围。

Investigación sobre los factores que influyen en la voluntad de viajar al extranjero de los residentes chinos después de la nueva epidemia de neumonía coronaria: un modelo extendido de TPB basado en la percepción de la epidemia

Resumen

Este estudio tiene como objetivo explorar los factores que influyen en las intenciones posteriores a la pandemia de los residentes chinos de participar en viajes al extranjero. Se estudia el mecanismo por el cual la percepción de los residentes sobre la enfermedad por coronavirus (COVID-19) influyó en sus intenciones de viajar al extranjero.

Este estudio tiene como objetivo explorar los factores que influyen en la intención de viaje de salida de los residentes chinos después de la pandemia, en particular el mecanismo por el cual la percepción de los residentes de COVID-19 influyó en sus intenciones de viaje de salida.

Los resultados mostraron que la actitud, las normas subjetivas, el control conductual percibido y el comportamiento de viajes de ida y vuelta en el pasado tienen efectos positivos significativos sobre la intención de viajar de ida después de la pandemia. Si bien la percepción de COVID-19 influye directamente de forma negativa en la intención de viaje de ida, también influye indirectamente en la intención de viaje de ida a través del efecto mediador de las intervenciones no farmacéuticas. También encontramos que la tolerancia al riesgo tiene un efecto moderador negativo sobre el impacto directo de la percepción de los residentes sobre el COVID-19 en la intención de viaje.

Nuestros hallazgos se pueden utilizar como referencia para las agencias gubernamentales, los departamentos de gestión del turismo y las empresas turísticas en los países de destino en la formulación de políticas de desarrollo turístico adecuadas.

Este estudio desarrolló un modelo TPB extendido agregando más constructos en el modelo TPB. En comparación con el modelo TPB original, el modelo TPB extendido tiene un mejor poder explicativo de las intenciones de viaje posteriores a una pandemia en el contexto de una pandemia. Este estudio también proporcionó evidencia de la aplicabilidad del modelo TPB para estudiar las intenciones de viaje en el contexto de las principales emergencias de salud pública y amplió el ámbito de aplicación del modelo TPB.

This study analyzes the desires and behavioral intentions of tourists within the scope of perception of COVID-19 and nonpharmaceutical intervention during the COVID-19 pandemic.

The population of the research consists of people on a touristic trip in Turkey. Because of the pandemic, questionnaire data was collected online between 25 April and 15 May 2020. The research was carried out with 712 questionnaire forms. The data obtained were analyzed by structural equation modeling in the SM-PLS statistics program.

Perception of COVID-19 significantly and positively affects NPI and negatively and significantly affects desire. Perception of COVID-19 and NPI do not have a significant positive/negative effect on behavioral intention. Finally, desire has a significantly positive effect on behavioral intention.

Since the research has limitations in terms of time, cost, accessibility and control difficulties, the entire population could not be reached. The study was carried out with only 712 tourists traveling in Turkey.

The obtained results will impact, particularly the decisions taken in Turkey's tourism sector. Moreover, if tourism companies know the decisions of the consumers during the pandemic process, they can use the appropriate marketing techniques.

The result may give an idea about the decision-making process of the consumers on traveling during the pandemic. In this way, psychologically different research can be developed.

There has not been any study made in Turkey that investigated the context of the current research model. Therefore, this research is original.

This paper aims to investigate the relationships between motivation and intention to consume local food and between intention to consume local food and intention to visit the destination of that food's origin while examining the moderating effect of risk perception associated with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19).

Data were collected from two samples of potential Chinese tourists in the contexts of Italian and Thai food. Data obtained from 264 Chinese respondents for Italian food and 277 Chinese respondents for Thai food were analyzed. Partial least squares structural equation modeling was utilized to test the research model.

The results indicate that, while motivational factors such as cultural experience, novelty and sensory appeal influence potential Chinese tourists' intention to consume Italian food, motivational factors such as cultural experience, health concern, novelty and sensory appeal influence tourists' intention to consume Thai food. The authors found that intention to consume local food positively influences tourists' intention to visit both destinations (Italy and Thailand). Moreover, tourists' risk perceptions of COVID-19 negatively moderate the effect of cultural experience and novelty on the intention to consume Italian food. Regarding the intention to consume Thai food, the authors found that tourists' risk perceptions have a diminishing effect on all motivational factors.

This pioneering study examines the role of COVID-19-related risk perception on the relationships among motivation of local food consumption, intention of local food consumption and destination visit intention in the context of two destination countries. It reveals cross-country differences of the negative effect pertaining to the risk perceptions of COVID-19, which has important implications for international destination marketing.

This research aims to study self-defense behaviors from coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and to investigate factors affecting the prevention and control behavior of COVID-19 among personnel at Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi.

The sample was 405 personnel of Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi. The sample was calculated by using the Yamane formula at a confidence level of 95. The researcher collected the data between July 1 and 15, 2020. Questionnaire items were developed following the health belief model (HBM). The questionnaire contains basic information, knowledge of COVID-19, perception of COVID-19 and COVID-19 preventive behaviors. Data were analyzed by descriptive statistics, correlation coefficients and multiple regression analysis at the statistical significance level of 0.05.

The results showed that the sample had an average knowledge about COVID-19 of 8.93, the perceived of risk and severity of COVID-19 was presented average of 4.22 and 3.48. The perceived of benefits and barriers of COVID-19 showed average of 4.31 and 2.72 and mean of COVID-19 prevention and control behaviors was 2.41. The multiple regression analysis showed that the model can explain the various self-defense behaviors from COVID-19 of 11.30%. Perception of the benefits of COVID-19 had a statistically significant effect on self-defense behaviors from COVID-19 at the level 0.05 (Beta = 0.232, 95% CI: 1.233–3.395, p < 0.001).

Based on the results, the relationship between HBM and COVID-19 prevention behavior can be clearly seen. This study found the perception of benefit toward COVID-19 affected prevention practice. Thus, using HBM could be useful in improving preventive behaviors of COVID-19.