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In recent years, the use of structural equation modeling (SEM) has become widespread in tourism and hospitality research. Because there are two different approaches to SEM (i.e., covariance-based SEM and variance-based, partial least squares SEM), this brings challenges for researchers about which SEM to use and what to report in each SEM approach. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss the differences between CB-SEM and PLS-SEM and to provide comprehensive guidelines for researchers on how to apply each SEM. Within this context, the authors first briefly summarize the fundamentals and advantages of using SEM. Then, the authors explain in detail the major issues that should be considered when selecting between CB-SEM and PLS-SEM. Finally, to ensure rigorous research practices, the authors provide step-by-step guidelines for the application of both CB-SEM and PLS-SEM.

Structural equation modelling (SEM) has increasingly been used by hospitality and tourism researchers to examine complex relationships. This paper aims to highlight the benefits and limitations of SEM for hospitality and tourism research and compare its two main approaches, i.e. covariance-based SEM (CB-SEM) and partial least squares-SEM (PLS-SEM).

By using a comparative approach, this study parallels SEM’s two main approaches, i.e. CB-SEM and PLS-SEM, using three different examples from hospitality and tourism industry. Both the approaches are compared side by side in terms of assumptions, validity and reliability of measurement models, item retention and loadings, strength and significance of path relationships and coefficient of determinations.

The findings show that even though both methods analyse measurement theory and structural path models, there are relatively higher advantages for hospitality and tourism researchers in applying PLS-SEM.

Because of the limitations of only using three examples, the results and trends generated in this study may not be generalized to all research in hospitality and tourism discipline. Moreover, the Likert scale has been used to measure the constructs in both the studies, which may have biased the results.

This study is the first to compare the usage of both the SEM approaches in hospitality and tourism research. The findings of this study provide significant implications and directions for hospitality and tourism researchers to apply PLS-SEM in the future.

Structural equation modelling (SEM) has been defined as the combination of latent variables and structural relationships. The partial least squares SEM (PLS-SEM) is used to estimate complex cause-effect relationship models with latent variables as the most salient research methods across a variety of disciplines, including knowledge management (KM). Following the path initiated by different domains in business research, this paper aims to examine how PLS-SEM has been applied in KM research, also providing some new guidelines how to improve PLS-SEM report analysis.

To ensure an objective way to analyse relevant works in the field of KM, this study conducted a systematic literature review of 63 publications in three SSCI-indexed and specific KM journals between 2015 and 2017.

Our results show that over the past three years, a significant amount of KM works has empirically used PLS-SEM. The findings also suggest that in light of recent developments of PLS-SEM reporting, some common misconceptions among KM researchers occurred mainly related to the reasons for using PLS-SEM, the purposes of PLS-SEM analysis, data characteristics, model characteristics and the evaluation of the structural models.

This study contributes to that vast KM literature by documenting the PLS-SEM-related problems and misconceptions. Therefore, it will shed light for better reports in PLS-SEM studies in the KM field.

Structural equation modeling (SEM) has been widely used to examine complex research models in international business and marketing research. While the covariance-based SEM (CB-SEM) approach is dominant, the authors argue that the field’s dynamic nature and the sometimes early stage of theory development more often require a partial least squares SEM (PLS-SEM) approach. The purpose of this paper is to critically review the application of SEM techniques in the field.

The authors searched six journals with an international business (and marketing) focus (Management International Review, Journal of International Business Studies, Journal of International Management, International Marketing Review, Journal of World Business, International Business Review) from 1990 to 2013. The authors reviewed all articles that apply SEM, analyzed their research objectives and methodology choices, and assessed whether the PLS-SEM papers followed the best practices outlined in the past.

Of the articles, 379 utilized CB-SEM and 45 PLS-SEM. The reasons for using PLS-SEM referred largely to sampling and data measurement issues and did not sufficiently build on the procedure’s benefits that stem from its design for predictive and exploratory purposes. Thus, the procedure’s key benefits, which might be fruitful for the theorizing process, are not being fully exploited. Furthermore, authors need to better follow best practices to truly advance theory building.

The authors examined a subset of journals in the field and did not include general management journals that publish international business and marketing-related studies. Fur-thermore, the authors found only limited use of PLS-SEM in the journals the authors considered relevant to the study.

The study contributes to the literature by providing researchers seeking to adopt SEM as an analytical method with practical guidelines for making better choices concerning an appropriate SEM approach. Furthermore, based on a systematic review of current practices in the international business and marketing literature, the authors identify critical challenges in the selection and use of SEM procedures and offer concrete recommendations for better practice.

This paper aims to propose a multi-dimensional model on the basis of the key factors of the flexibility and the complexity through structural equation modeling (SEM). Dimensions of the flexibilities and complexity, including 16 main factors and 34 sub-factors, are investigated. The sampling of the research is accomplished using both academic and industrial experts.

A huge electronic questionnaire analysis, including 1,250 samples from which 1,036 were returned, was accomplished in various universities and manufacturing companies throughout the USA, Europe and Asia. Partial least square-SEM (PLS-SEM) is used to test the hypotheses through confirmatory factor analysis.

The results reveal insightful information about the impacts of different dimensions of flexibility on each other and also the effect of the flexibility on the complexity. Finally, system of linear mathematical equations for flexibility-complexity trade-off is proposed. This can be applied to realize the trade-off among dimensions of flexibility and complexity.

Flexible manufacturing systems are formed to meet the needs of the customers. Such systems try to produce products in appropriate quality at the right time and at the specified quantity. These, in turn, require flexibility and will cause complexity. Although flexibility and complexity are both important, there is no comprehensive framework in which the multi-dimensional relationships of the manufacturing flexibility and complexity, as well as their dimensions, are demonstrated.

This study aims to investigate the effect of knowledge hiding on individual task performance and examine the moderating influence of transformational leadership.

This study included 256 participants employed by financing companies in Indonesia. In addition, to analyze the data, descriptive statistics were computed using SPSS 25, and the structural equation model-partial least square (SEM-PLS) was used for hypothesis testing.

The findings revealed the negative effects of knowledge hiding on individual task performance and its potential consequences for individuals and organizations. However, it also suggested that transformational leadership may not be sufficient to reduce the negative effects of knowledge hiding on individual task performance.

This study only focused on the context of a specific industry or country, which limited the generalizability of the findings.

This study enriches the understanding of the importance of addressing knowledge-hiding behaviors and investigating additional factors that can enhance task performance in organizations.

This study adds value to the existing literature by emphasizing the importance of investigating supplementary factors other than transformational leadership that have the potential to reduce the negative effects of knowledge hiding on organizational performance.

The purpose of this study is to analyse the factors influencing intention to adopt 3D design digital technologies (3DDTs) by Colombian firms.

A conceptual framework was developed using technology-organization-environment (TOE) and technology acceptance model (TAM) theoretical frameworks. From a sample of 138 firms, a structural equation model was analysed with partial least squares (SEM-PLS).

The study identified that perceived usefulness in the technological dimension; technological competence and top management support in the organizational dimension; and competitive pressures in the environmental dimension, are variables affecting intention to adopt 3DDT. The effects of the mediating variables with respect to intention to adopt the technology are also analysed, such as perceived usefulness on the effect of ease of use; top management support on the effect of technological competence and financial readiness; and competitive pressures on the effect of stakeholder pressure. The model explained 71.1% of the 3DDT intention to adopt.

The model can be used as a guideline to ensure a positive outcome of the 3DDT adoption in organizations. The results could be useful to understand a technological adoption process for digital transformation.

The proposed model integrates some contributions from the TAM and TOE theories and identifies some novel mediating effects that improve its predictive and explanatory power. Furthermore, this is a pioneering study in empirical research on 3DDT in the context of a developing country, specifically in Colombia. The findings from this study provide a foundation for other studies, as well as constructive insights for digital transformation, due to its infancy in an emerging economy.

The purpose of this study is to determine the metric properties of a questionnaire that evaluates environmental and ecological purchasing behavior, environmental personal norms, environmental identity and environmental social influence.

The validity and reliability of the scales of the questionnaires were determined in a sample of 2445 consumers from Lima (Peru), selected through non-probabilistic sampling by quotas and by factorial analysis based on Classical Theory of Tests (CTT) and Structural Equations of Variance with Partial Least Squares (SEM-PLS).

The results support the construct and discriminant validity of the instrument, as well as the internal consistency of all the subscales (Cronbach’s alpha between 0.662 and 0.8887 – composite reliability between 0.815 and 0.917).

Customers evaluated were only from Lima city. It would be important to evaluate, in future research, customers from other cities in Peru.

Although a large number of instruments have been designed, not all are based on integral theoretical models, and their metric properties were determined with methodological criteria that restrict their applicability. Therefore, there is a need to have valid and reliable instruments for the identification of environmental behavior and ecological purchasing.

This “new questionnaire” integrates the exploration of environmental behavior and ecological purchasing, along with the measurement of personal environmental norms, environmental identity and the social influence received from peers and teachers, to provide a comprehensive picture of the consumer behavior.

This research constitutes a theoretical and practical contribution to the understanding and evaluation of ecological behavior and some of its associated factors. Its main contribution is the adaptation of this instrument to the Peruvian context and the validation of an instrument that evaluates environmental and ecological purchasing behavior, personal environmental standards, environmental identity and environmental social influence.

The purpose of this paper is to understand the impact of network relationship strength and subsidiary initiatives on the headquarters value added and performance in foreign-owned subsidiaries.

This study is based on survey data collected from foreign-owned subsidiaries located in Thailand. The authors use symmetric structured equation modelling partial least squared (SEM-PLS) and asymmetric fuzzy set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA) techniques to analyse the data.

The authors found that intra-organisational relationship strength is one of the key determinants for high headquarter value added. They also found that headquarter value added plays a crucial role in explaining subsidiary performance. The role of subsidiary initiatives seem overall less pronounced than initially thought.

The originality of this study lies in the conceptual framework based on networks and subsidiary initiatives. This is one of the few studies that empirically tests headquarters value-added determinants in subsidiaries located in an emerging market. Furthermore, the authors use SEM-PLS and fsQCA to look beyond more commonly tested symmetric associations.

The purpose of this study is to determine the effect of conscientiousness and extraversion personality traits on project success. The relationship is mediated by affective professional commitment, whilst the relationship between personality traits and project success is moderated by organizational project management maturity.

The deductive approach is used to achieve the objectives of this study. Data were collected through a purposive sampling technique from 250 respondents with the help of questionnaires from information technology sectors. The structural equation modelling (SEM) in partial least squares-SEM and SPSS is used to analyse the data and to examine the hypothesis.

The outcomes demonstrate the partial mediating impact of affective professional commitment between the relationship of conscientiousness and extraversion personalities with project success. Additionally, it proves the moderating effects of project management maturity between the relationship of conscientiousness and extraversion personalities with project success.

This study reflects that employee personality appears to be a reliable indicator of how an employee is faithful to his profession. This faithfulness or duty decides the employee’s execution in terms of offering a successful project. Thus, achieving employee commitment needs to be done by completing the project successfully by the organizations in the presence of project management maturity systems.

It is the first study of its kind to provide experimental proof of the impact of a manager’s personality traits on project success in the presence of affective professional commitment (mediator) and organizational project management maturity (moderator).