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With the rapid growth of wireless sensor networks (WSNs), they have become an integral and substantial part of people's life. As such WSN stands as an assuring outlook, but because of sensor's resource limitations and other prerequisites, optimal dual route discovery becomes an issue of concern. WSN along with central sink node is capable of handling wireless transmission, thus optimizing the network's lifetime by selecting the dual path. The major problem confronted in the application of security mechanisms in WSNs is resolving the issues amid reducing consumption of resources and increases security.

According to the proposed system, two metrics, namely, path length and packets delivery ratio are incorporated for identifying dual routes amid the source and destination. Thereafter by making use of the distance metric, the optimal dual route is chosen and data transmission is carried out amid the nodes. With the usage of the recommended routing protocol high packet delivery ratio is achieved with reduced routing overhead and low average end to end delay. It is clearly portrayed in the simulation output that the proposed on demand dual path routing protocol surpasses the prevailing routing protocol. Moreover, security is achieved make use of in accord the data compression reduces the size of the data. With the help of dual path, mathematical model of Finite Automata Theory is derived to transmit data from source to destination. Finite Automata Theory comprises Deterministic Finite Automata (DFA) that is being utilized for Dual Path Selection. In addition, data transition functions are defined for each input stage. In this proposed work, another mathematical model is 10; introduced to efficiently choose an alternate path between a receiver and transmitter for data transfer with qualified node as relay node using RR Algorithm. It also includes Dynamic Mathematical Model for Node Localization to improve the precision in location estimation using Node Localization Algorithm. As a result a simulator is built and various scenarios are elaborated for comparing the performance of the recommended dual path routing protocol with respect to the prevailing ones.

Reliability and fault-tolerance: The actual motive in utilizing the approach of multipath routing in sensor network was to offer path resilience in case of a node or link failures thus ascertaining reliable transmission of data. Usually in a fault tolerant domain, when the sensor node is unable to forward the data packets to the sink, alternative paths can be utilized for recovering its data packets during the failure of any link/node. Load balancing: Load balancing involves equalizing energy consumption of all the existing nodes, thereby degrading them together. Load balancing via clustering improves network scalability. The network's lifetime as well as reliability can be extended if varied energy level's nodes exist in sensor node. Quality of service (QoS): Improvement backing of quality of service with respect to the data delivery ratio, network throughput and end-to-end latency stands very significant in building multipath routing protocols for various network types. Reduced delay: There is a reduced delay in multipath routing since the backup routes are determined at the time of route discovery. Bandwidth aggregation: By dividing the data toward the same destination into multiple streams (by routing all to a separate path) can aggregate the effective bandwidth. The benefit being that, in case a node possesses many links with low bandwidth, it can acquire a bandwidth which is more compared to the individual link.

Few more new algorithms can be used to compare the QoS parameters.

Proposed mechanism with feedback ascertains improvised delivery ratio compared to the single path protocol since in case of link failure, the protocol has alternative route. In case there are 50 nodes in the network, the detection mechanism yields packet delivery of 95% and in case there are 100 nodes, the packet delivery is lowered to 89%. It is observed that the packet rate in the network is more for small node range. When the node count is 200, the packet ratio is low, which is lowered to 85%. With a node count of 400, the curve depicts the value of 87%. Hence, even with a decrease in value, it is superior than the existing protocols. The average end-to-end delay represents the transmission delay of the data packets that have been successfully delivered as depicted in Figure 6 and Table 3. The recommended system presents the queue as well as the propagation delay from the source to destination. The figure depicts that when compared to the single path protocol, the end-to-end delay can be reduced via route switching. End-to-end delay signifies the time acquired for the delay in the receival of the the retransmitted packet by each node. The comparison reveals that the delay was lower compared to the existing ones in the WSN. Proposed protocol aids in reducing consumption of energy in transmitter, receiver and various sensors. Comparative analysis of energy consumptions of the sensor in regard to the recommended system must exhibit reduced energy than the prevailing systems.

On demand dual path routing protocol. Hence it is verified that the on demand routing protocol comprises DFA algorithms determines dual path. Here mathematical model for routing between two nodes with relay node is derived using RR algorithm to determine alternate path and thus reduce energy consumption. Another dynamic mathematical model for node localization is derived using localization algorithm. For transmitting data with a secure and promising QoS in the WSNs, the routing optimization technique has been introduced. The simulation software environment follows the DFA. The simulation yields in improvised performance with respect to packet delivery ratio, throughput, average end-to-end delay and routing overhead. So, it is proved that the DFA possesses the capability of optimizing the routing algorithms which facilitates the multimedia applications over WSNs.

This paper aims to provide prolonging network lifetime and optimizing energy consumption in mobile wireless sensor networks (MWSNs). Forming clusters of mobile nodes is a great task owing to their dynamic nature. Such clustering has to be performed with a higher consumption of energy. Perhaps sensor nodes might be supplied with batteries that cannot be recharged or replaced while in the field of operation. One optimistic approach to handle the issue of energy consumption is an efficient way of cluster organization using the particle swarm optimization (PSO) technique.

In this paper two improved versions of centralized PSO, namely, unequal clustering PSO (UC-PSO) and hybrid K-means clustering PSO (KC-PSO), are proposed, with a focus of achieving various aspects of clustering parameters such as energy consumption, network lifetime and packet delivery ratio to achieve energy-efficient and reliable communication in MWSNs.

Theoretical analysis and simulation results show that improved PSO algorithms provide a balanced energy consumption among the cluster heads and increase the network lifetime effectively.

In this work, each sensor node transmits and receives packets at same energy level only. In this work, focus was on centralized clustering only.

To validate the proposed swarm optimization algorithm, a simulation-based performance analysis has been carried out using NS-2. In each scenario, a given number of sensors are randomly deployed and performed in a monitored area. In this work, simulations were carried out in a 100 × 100 m² network consisting 200 nodes by using a network simulator under various parameters. The coordinate of base station is assumed to be 50 × 175. The energy consumption due to communication is calculated using the first-order radio model. It is considered that all nodes have batteries with initial energy of 2 J, and the sensing range is fixed at 20 m. The transmission range of each node is up to 25 m and node mobility is set to 10 m/s.

This proposed work utilizes the swarm behaviors and targets the improvement of mobile nodes’ lifetime and energy consumption.

PSO algorithms have been implemented for dynamic sensor nodes, which optimize the clustering and CH selection in MWSNs. A new fitness function is evaluated to improve the network lifetime, energy consumption, cluster formation, packet transmissions and cluster head selection.

The purpose of this paper is to introduce a new data dissemination model in order to improve the performance of transmission in VANET. It proposes a protocol named Epidemic and Transmission-Segment-based Geographic Routing (ETSGR) and outlining the issues due to high mobility of nodes and uncertain physical topologies in the network. The proposed ETSGR is mainly used to analyze the vehicle state, direction, distance, traffic density and link quality of the network.

This research work based on ETSGR protocol mainly uses epidemic algorithm in order to find the vehicle state based on susceptible, infected and recovered (SIR) model. Furthermore, the vehicle position and finding the head node in the network is utilized using the transmission segment protocol based on geographic routing and analyses each node to form the segments and find the destination to transmit the data in timely manner.

The paper provides the enhancement of the performance based on some metrics such as end-to-end delay that obtained 0.62%, data throughput as 32.3%, packet delivery ratio as 67% and one-hop communication as 13%. The proposed ETSGR protocol analyzes the state of the vehicle correctly and each node segmented to transmit the data with the timely manner and obtaining reliable performance even with high mobility of nodes in the network.

The proposed ETSGR protocol may have some limitation when considering the timing which should improve even in increasing many number of vehicles and different road segments.

This paper includes some suggestions for the practical deployment of the approach in which a real-time traffic analysis can be evaluated for taking prior actions during an emergency situation and proper dissemination of data in timely manner can help utilize the guidance of proper planning of roads.

This research fulfills an enhanced protocol to improve the performance of data dissemination.

Fifth-generation (5G) networks play a significant role in handover methods. 5G wireless network is open, flexible and highly heterogeneous along with the overlay coverage and small cell deployments. Handover management is one of the main problems in the heterogeneous network. Also, handover satisfies the needs of ultra-reliable communications along with very high reliability and availability in 5G networks. Handover management deals with every active connection of a user’s device, which moves the connection between the user’s device and the counterparty from one network point to another. Thus, the handover decision determines the best access network and also decides whether the handover is performed or not.

The main intention of this survey is to review several existing handover technologies in 5G. Using the categories of analysis, the existing techniques are divided into different techniques such as authentication-based techniques, blockchain-based techniques, software-defined-based techniques and radio access-based techniques. The survey is made by considering the methods such as used software, categorization of methods and used in the research works. Furthermore, the handover rate is considered for performance evaluation for the handover techniques in 5G. The drawbacks present in the existing review papers are elaborated in research gaps and issues division.

Through the detailed analysis and discussion, it can be summarized that the widely concerned evaluation metric for the performance evaluation is the handover rate. It is exploited that the handover rate within the range of 91%–99% is achieved by three research papers.

A survey on the various handover mechanisms in 5G networks is expected in this study. The research papers used in this survey are gathered from different sources such as Google Scholar and IEEE. Also, this survey suggests a further extension for the handover mechanism in 5G networks by considering various research gaps and issues.

The purpose of this paper is to propose, a new multi-path routing protocol that distributes packets over the available paths between a sender and a receiver in a multi-hop ad hoc network. We call this protocol Geometric Sequence Based Multipath Routing Protocol (GMRP).

GMRP distributes packets according to the geometric sequence. GMRP is evaluated using GloMoSim simulator. The authors use packet delivery ratio and end-to-end delay as the comparison performance metrics. They also vary many network configuration parameters such as number of nodes, transmission rate, mobility speed and network area.

The simulation results show that GMRP reduces the average end-to-end delay by up to 49 per cent and increases the delivery ratio by up to 8 per cent.

This study is the first to propose to use of geometric sequence in the multipath routing approach.

The purpose of this paper is to describe the required functionalities on providing internet connectivity and mobility management for mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs), present discovered problems such as inconsistent contexts, and provide the corresponding solutions. It also provides a hybrid metric for the load‐balance of intra/inter‐MANET traffic over multiple internet gateways (IGWs).

The paper uses both mathematical analyses and simulations to discover the required functionalities and problems on providing internet connectivity and mobility management for MANETs. The proposed hybrid metric for IGW selection is a replacement of the shortest hop‐count (HC) metric, and consider three factors: HC distance, intra‐MANET traffic, and inter‐MANET traffic.

Simulation results show that ad hoc routing protocols, using the proposed metric, get better performance in terms of packet delivery ratio and transmission delay, at the cost of slightly increased signalling overhead.

In the assessment, simulation results are taken from two mobility scenarios, and the hybrid metric is integrated into only reactive ad hoc routing. Thus, more case studies need to be carried out to demonstrate the outcomes of the proposed metric compared with others.

This paper provides the needed functionalities for broadening the richness of MANET applications to internet users, and vice verse.

This paper contributes to the research on internetworking and mobility management between MANETs and the internet.

The internet of vehicles (IoV) communication has recently become a popular research topic in the automotive industry. The growth in the automotive sector has resulted in significant standards and guidelines that have engaged various researchers and companies. In IoV, routing protocols play a significant role in enhancing communication safety for the transportation system. The high mobility of nodes in IoV and inconsistent network coverage in different areas make routing challenging. This paper aims to provide a lane-based advanced forwarding protocol for internet of vehicles (LAFP-IoV) for efficient data distribution in IoV. The proposed protocol’s main feature is that it can identify the destination zone by using position coordinates and broadcasting the packets toward the direction of destination. The novel suppression technique is used in the broadcast method to reduce the network routing overhead.

The proposed protocol considers the interferences between different road segments, and a novel lane-based forwarding model is presented. The greedy forwarding notion, the broadcasting mechanism, and the suppression approach are used in this protocol to reduce the overhead generated by standard beacon forwarding procedures. The SUMO tool and NS-2 simulator are used for the vehicle's movement pattern and to simulate LAFP-IoV.

The simulation results show that the proposed LAFP-IoV protocol performs better than its peer protocols. It uses a greedy method for forwarding data packets and a carry-and-forward strategy to recover from the local maximum stage. This protocol's low latency and good PDR make it ideal for congested networks.

The proposed paper provides a unique lane-based forwarding for IoV. The proposed work achieves a higher delivery ratio than its peer protocols. The proposed protocol considers the lanes while forwarding the data packets applicable to the highly dense scenarios.

In this study, we discuss three DTN routing protocols, these are epidemic, PRoPHET and spray and wait routing protocols. A special simulator will be used; that is opportunistic network environment (ONE) to create a network environment. Spray and wait has highest delivery rate and low latency in most of the cases. Hence, spray and wait have better performance than others. This analysis of the performance of DTN protocols helps the researcher to learn better of these protocols in the different environment.

Delay-Tolerant Network (DTN) is a network designed to operate effectively over extreme distances, such as those encountered in space communications or on an interplanetary scale. In such an environment, nodes are occasional communication and are available among hubs, and determinations of the next node communications are not confirmed. In such network environment, the packet can be transferred by searching current efficient route available for a particular node. Due to the uncertainty of packet transfer route, DTN is affected by a variety of factors such as packet size, communication cost, node activity, etc.

Spray and wait have highest delivery rate and low latency in most of the cases. Hence, spray and wait have better performance than others.

The primary goal of the paper is to extend these works in an attempt to offer a better understanding of the behavior of different DTN routing protocols with delivery probability, latency and overhead ratio that depend on various amounts of network parameters such as buffer size, number of nodes, movement ratio, time to live, movement range, transmission range and message generation rate. In this study, we discuss three DTN routing protocols: these are epidemic, PRoPHET and spray and wait routing protocols. A special simulator will be used; that is opportunistic network environment (ONE) to create a network environment. Spray and wait have highest delivery rate and low latency in most of the cases. Hence, spray and wait have better performance than others. This analysis of the performance of DTN protocols helps the researcher to learn better of these protocols in the different environment.

This study aims to evaluate the direct trust value for each node and calculate the trust value of all nodes satisfying the condition and update the trust value and value each trust update interval for a secure and efficient communication between sender and destination node. Hence, a Trusted Secure Geographic Routing Protocol (TSGRP) has been proposed for detecting attackers (presence of the hacker), considering the trust value for a node produced by combining the location trusted information and the direct trusted information.

Amelioration in the research studies related to mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) and wireless sensor networks has shown greater concern in the presence of malicious nodes, due to which the delivery percentage in any given network can degrade to a larger extent, and hence make the network less reliable and more vulnerable to security.

TSGRP has outperformed the conventional protocols for detecting attacks in MANET. TSGRP is establishing a trust-based secure communication between the sender and destination node. The evaluated direct trust value is used after the transmission of route-request and route-reply packets, to evaluate the direct trust value of each node and a secure path is established between the sender and the destination node. The effectiveness of the proposed TSGRP is evaluated through NS-2 simulation.

The simulation results show the delay of the proposed method is 92% less than PRISM approach and the overhead of the proposed TSGRP approach is 61% less than PRISM approach.

Routing protocol for low-power lossy network (RPL) being the de facto routing protocol used by low power lossy networks needs to provide adequate routing service to mobile nodes (MNs) in the network. As RPL is designed to work under constraint power requirements, its route updating frequency is not sufficient for MNs in the network. The purpose of this study is to ensure that MNs enjoy seamless connection throughout the network with minimal handover delay.

This study proposes a load balancing mobility aware secure hybrid – RPL in which static node (SN) identifies route using metrics like expected transmission count, and path delay and parent selection are further refined by working on remaining energy for identifying the primary route and queue availability for secondary route maintenance. MNs identify route with the help of smart timers and by using received signal strength indicator sampling of parent and neighbor nodes. In this work, MNs are also secured against rank attack in RPL.

This model produces favorable result in terms of packet delivery ratio, delay, energy consumption and number of living nodes in the network when compared with different RPL protocols with mobility support. The proposed model reduces packet retransmission in the network by a large margin by providing load balancing to SNs and seamless connection to MNs.

In this work, a novel algorithm was developed to provide seamless handover for MNs in network. Suitable technique was developed to provide load balancing to SNs in network by maintaining appropriate secondary route.