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This monograph looks at the growing use of the outdoors for management development on both sides of the Atlantic. The author suggests the term “Outdoor Development” to describe a systematic use of outdoor activities which incorporate process reviews and the application of experiential learning methods.

The purpose of this paper is to examine Czech traditions of outdoor games and sports, turistika activities and education in nature programmes, which have continued to develop during periods of oppression and provided opportunities to preserve the Czech culture.

A review of the historical, cultural and political context of education in nature traditions in Czech was proposed.

Late 19th century organisations such as the Turistický klub and Sokol were instrumental in developing a range of indigenous turistika activities involving active movement. The early 20th century influences were the Czech scouting movement, summer camps and Woodcraft. Charles University provided the first tertiary outdoor educational programmes in Prague in the 1950s. Their foundation course “Turistika and Outdoor Sports” is still compulsory for all students studying physical education and sport. Turistika activities and outdoor sports and games continued to be developed throughout the liberalization of the socialist regime in the 1960s.

Following the Prague Spring in 1968, and under the guise of the Socialist Youth Union organization, new experimental forms of outdoor education emerged.

Since the Velvet Revolution in 1989 organisations have reconnected with Czech outdoor traditions that flourished before 1948 and other organisations have developed education in nature programs. The commercial sphere, which did not exist before 1989, has now been established in the outdoor area. However, traditional participation in turistika activities has been impacted by other external motivations as a broader range of opportunities have become available and accepted, and tourism outside of Czech and Europe has become increasingly popular and accessible.

The originality of this paper is to provide an overview of Czech political and cultural history and how it has shaped people's relationship, particularly children and youth, with the outdoors.

Few models have been developed to help clients to make sense of the variety of outdoor development courses and processes now available to them. Suggests that a consideration of focus, risk, facilitation type and reality may help with the differentiation between programmes.

How two business school lecturers used outdoor activities as an aid to management development. Their findings show that physically and psychologically demanding tasks can make a significant contribution to management learning.

There appears to be widespread belief in training benefits which can be derived from the use of Outdoor Management Development (OMD) despite an apparent lack of valid and reliable research in this area. Problems with operationally defining OMD may have generated some of the confusions and controversy which are evident in the literature. An examination of a widely used model of evaluation suggests that it may be prone to contamination by potential sources of systematic bias. Consequently, results derived from this form of evaluation are difficult to verify. Potential users of OMD may need critically to evaluate the evidence used to support claimed outcomes before deciding to use this form of training. The only current way for practitioners to gain valid and reliable evidence about the outcomes of OMD training may be for them to conduct their own evaluations. Undertakes a wide review of the available literature, providing tables, which shows the general characteristics of the literature sample, and the most commonly cited outcomes.

Describes the use of outdoor management development exercises in relation to the issue of personal competences. Presents findings of a pilot study by the University of Glasgow Business School, which is researching the relationship between traditional and vocational models of learning. Finds that in general, there are potential personal benefits for participants to explore their managerial skills through outdoor development exercises, but that research needs to continue to ensure a greater emphasis on self‐confidence, drive, personal learning and development.

Adventure training (AT) as a movement has its origins in outdoor‐based experiential programs such as “outward bound”. Recently, educators have questioned the educational value of the “outdoor” component of AT and there is an opinion that it is the novelty of the setting/activities and the provision of psychological (rather than physical) risk that are its key elements. With this in mind, indoor adventure training (IAT) offers new possibilities for management training and development. Indoor‐based experiential education removes uncontrollable outdoor factors such as climate, danger, emotional distress and the need for physical abilities. These outdoor factors can be replaced by educational drama elements that encourage engagement, fantasy and meaning through theatre form. In this paper the theoretical development of IAT is discussed and an outline is given of a revolutionary IAT approach that immerses participants in a themed dramatic experience with the purpose of developing such things as learning about teamwork, problem solving and communication skills.

Despite rapid expansion in provision of outdoor management development (OMD), there is a lack of empirical evidence to support the efficacy of the learning process and crucially, its transfer to the workplace. Prompted by the dearth of research into the linkage between programme aims, the methodologies utilised and outcomes that are purported to accrue, a new framework for analysing the mechanisms of skills transfer is proposed. The framework represents a decision making chain comprised of three factors i.e. the knowledge base, learning approach and practice setting. In order to explore the veracity of the framework, data were gathered about the methodologies used by ten major providers of OMD to promote the transfer of skills in conflict handling. Results confirmed the model to be tenable insofar as the variables represented within it were reportedly utilised as aspects of skills development. Significantly, however, there was little evidence for the application of this framework, or any other process‐based decision making, on the design of optimum content or method.

Describes an empirical research study focusing on a specific form of personal development for managers – the use of the outdoors. This development activity is believed to enhance managers′ understanding of themselves and the ways in which they interact with others, enabling them to operate more effectively in today′s turbulent business environment. Four outcome hypotheses were tested: increased self‐awareness, increased ability to “learn how to learn”, positive changes to individual′s self‐concept and increased use of “openness” behaviours. Both qualitative and quantitative data were used in testing the hypotheses. Although discrepancies arose between the qualitative and quantitative results, they do indicate that participants in the programme realized higher levels of self‐esteem and reported increased use of “openness” behaviours six months after the end of the programme.

Reviews the use of and evaluations of OMD by a number of large employers and suggests a framework for the evaluation of outdoor management development (OMD). In a questionnaire survey of large organizations it was found that current users of OMD feel that it is an effective part of their management development programmes and that these firm beliefs in the benefits for personal, team and leadership development are used as justification to continue to use the outdoors as a medium for enhancing their management development programmes. What was not clear was how such conclusions were arrived at other than through anecdote and intuition. Argues that more detailed systematic research using a range of techniques is required in order to investigate the claims of current users and the views of non‐users.