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This paper aims to explore the effect of non-resource tax revenue instability on non-resource tax revenue in developed and developing countries.

The analysis has used an unbalanced panel data set of 146 countries over the period 1981–2016, as well as the two-step system generalized methods of moment approach.

The empirical analysis has suggested that non-resource tax revenue instability influences negatively non-resource tax revenue share of gross domestic product. The magnitude of this negative effect is higher in less developed countries than in relatively advanced countries. This negative effect materializes through public expenditure instability: non-resource tax revenue instability exerts a higher effect on non-resource tax revenue share as the degree of public expenditure instability increases. Finally, non-resource tax revenue instability exerts a higher negative effect on non-resource tax revenue share as economic growth volatility rises, inflation volatility increases and terms of trade instability increases.

The main policy implication of this analysis is that policies that help ensure the stability of non-resource tax revenue also contribute to improving countries’ non-resource tax revenue share. For example, governments’ measures that help cope with or prevent the severe adverse effects of shocks on economies (shocks that could translate into higher tax revenue instability) would ultimately help enhance countries’ tax revenue performance.

The severity of the current COVID-19 pandemic shock (which is a supply and demand shock) and the macroeconomic uncertainty that it has generated – inter alia, in terms of economic growth instability, terms of trade instability, inflation volatility and public expenditure instability – are likely to result in severe tax revenue losses. Governments in both developed and developing countries would surely learn from the management of this crisis so as to prepare for possible future economic, financial and health crises with a view to dampening their adverse macroeconomic effects, including here their negative tax revenue effects.

To the best of the author’s knowledge, this topic is being addressed in the empirical literature for the first time.

This paper aims to investigate empirically how international tourism receipts influence public revenue, in particular non-resource revenue.

The analysis relies on an unbalanced panel of 156 countries (including both developed and developing countries) over the period 1995-2015. The empirical analysis uses the two-step system generalized methods of moments estimator.

The empirical results show that international tourism receipts exert a positive and significant impact on non-resource tax revenue. In addition, this effect increases as countries' development levels rise, which signifies that in terms of non-resource tax revenue, an increase in international tourism receipts benefit much more to advanced economies than to less advanced economies.

These findings call for governments notably in developing countries to develop the tourism sector and concurrently to strengthen tax administrations (and possibly design appropriate tax policy for the tourism sector) to derive the full advantage in terms of public revenue from the rise in international tourism receipts.

The analysis highlights the importance of international tourism receipts for public revenue. This would help scholars and policymakers have a clearer view, at least in terms of magnitude, on the impact of international tourism receipts on non-resource tax revenue.

To the best of the author’s knowledge, this is first the study that investigates this topic.

本文就国际旅游收入如何影响公共收入尤其是非资源收入的问题, 进行了实证研究。

本文的分析基于1995年至2015年期间由156个国家（包括发达国家和发展中国家）组成的不平衡小组的数据。 实证分析采用两步法通用矩量法（GMM）估计。

实证结果表明, 国际旅游收入对非资源税收入产生了积极而显著的影响。 而且, 这种影响随着国家发展水平的提高而增加, 这表明就非资源税收入而言, 国际旅游收入的增加对发达经济体的收益要比对较不发达经济体的收益大得多。

结果表明, 各国政府尤其是发展中国家的政府, 应当发展旅游业, 同时加强税收管理（并可能为旅游业设计适当的税收政策）, 以便从国际旅游业的增长中获得公共收入方面的最大收益。

分析强调了国际旅游收入对公共收入的重要性。 这将有助于学者和决策者对国际旅游收入对非资源税收入的影响（至少在规模上）有更清晰的认识。

据我们所知, 本文是第一个研究该主题的研究。

旅游外汇收入，非资源性收入

研究论文

El artículo investiga empíricamente, cómo los ingresos internacionales por turismo influyen en los ingresos públicos, en particular, todos aquellos ingresos “no relacionados” con los recursos turísticos.

El análisis se basa en un panel no-equilibrado de 156 países (incluidos países desarrollados y en desarrollo) durante el período 1995-2015. El análisis empírico que se aplica, se fundamente en dos fases sobre el estimador de Métodos Generalizados de Momentos (GMM).

Los resultados muestran que los ingresos internacionales por turismo, ejercen un impacto positivo y significativo, en los ingresos fiscales no relacionados con los recursos turísticos. Además, este efecto aumenta, a medida que aumentan los niveles de desarrollo de los países, lo que significa que, en términos de ingresos fiscales, no relacionados con los recursos, un aumento en los ingresos internacionales por turismo, beneficia mucho más a las economías avanzadas, que a las economías menos avanzadas.

Los descubrimientos de este trabajo, exigen que los gobiernos, en particular en los países en desarrollo, fomenten el sector turístico y al mismo tiempo, fortalezcan las administraciones tributarias (y posiblemente diseñen una política fiscal adecuada para el sector turístico), con el fin de obtener una ventaja total, en términos de ingresos públicos por el aumento de los ingresos del turismo internacional.

El análisis destaca la importancia de los ingresos por el turismo internacional en los ingresos públicos. Esto ayudaría a los académicos y gestores de políticas a tener una visión más clara, al menos en términos de magnitud, sobre el impacto de los ingresos por el turismo internacional en los ingresos fiscales no relacionados con los recursos turísticos.

Hasta donde sabemos, este es primero el estudio que investiga este tema.

Recibos de turismo internacional, Ingresos no recurrentes

Trabajo de investigación

The purpose of this paper is to gain insight into how well past reforms have performed against revenue, equity and efficiency benchmarks of tax policymaking, so that the direction of future reform of tax system might be determined. It also presents a comparative analysis of taxation and revenue trends in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region over the data set period 1990-2012.

By overviewing the development and relative significance of resource revenues, allocating non-resource taxes and examining the tax policies of constituent countries, this paper presents a comparative review of taxation and revenue trends in the MENA region.

Findings showed, on average, a slight decline in non-resource revenues against the significant rise in income from resources. The analysis of government revenues and current taxation structures provide insight into how prior reforms have performed against the standard measures of tax policy-making (i.e. revenue, equity and efficiency) and directions for change leading to the establishment of simple tax systems. The study observes regional differences, such as the higher tax and revenues of the Maghreb sub-region over the Mashreq, except for value-added tax, where low rates were associated with equal or greater revenue. Similarities were also found, including the partial compensation by income taxes (not indirect taxes) for revenue lost through trade liberalization. The challenges of tax reform are found to vary across countries and opportunities for improving equity and reducing the complexity of tax systems across the region are identified.

Reforms in all tax systems could have major implications for the country, employment, earnings and tax revenues; but recommendations would require political value judgments and government decisions. The study suggests eliminating the current tax system, thereby replacing one of the more distortionary taxes in the current system with a neutral and efficient tax.

The paper signals the need, even of the oil-rich states of the Gulf Cooperation Council, for governments to build tax systems capable of capturing and spending revenues effectively into the future.

The purpose of this paper is to explore why school districts in the USA made so little use of local sources of non-tax revenues, even when faced with declines in traditional revenue as occurred during the Great Recession? The analysis uses the case of Colorado, where historically districts have made more use of alternative revenues.

Data for the analysis are drawn from the NCES’s Common Core of Data with administrative data to create a panel of Colorado school districts. The paper presents estimates of traditional panel models, as well as spatial panel models, that give the correlates of variation in alternative revenue for education.

As is true nationally, in Colorado school districts made no increased use of non-tax revenues in fiscal downturns, while the presence of expenditure limits does increase use, though not as might be expected. Revenues from overrides of the limits and alternative local revenues appear to be complements. Further, there is no evidence of spatial relationships for the alternative revenue sources considered.

This paper uses richer data than has ever been used to explore the determinants of alternative revenues, making it possible to explore relationships others could not. In addition, synthetic cohort analysis is used to generate plausible instrumental variables for passage of an override of an expenditure limitation. Further, no existing analysis of nontraditional revenues considers the possibility that use of those revenues might be spatially correlated.

The purpose of this paper is to contribute to the empirical literature of the macroeconomic effect of trade facilitation reforms by examining the impact of the latter on tax revenue in both developed and developing countries. The relevance of the topic lies on the fact that at the Bali Ministerial Conference of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2013, Trade Ministers agreed for the first time since the creation of the WTO (in 1995) on an Agreement to facilitate trade around the world, dubbed Trade Facilitation Agreement (TFA). The study considers both at-the-border and behind-the border measures of Trade Facilitation.

To conduct this study, the authors rely on the literature related to the structural factors that explain tax revenue mobilization. The authors mainly use within fixed effects estimator. The analysis relies on 102 countries (of which 23 industrial countries) over the period 2004-2007 (based on data availability). A focus has also been made on African countries, within the sample of developing countries.

The empirical analysis suggests evidence of a positive and significant effect of trade facilitation reforms on non-resources tax revenue, irrespective of the sample of countries considered in the analysis.

This finding should contribute to dampening the fear of policymakers in developing countries, including Africa that the implementation of the TFA would entail higher costs, without necessarily being associated with higher benefits. An avenue for future research would be to extend the period of the study when data would be available.

To the best of the authors knowledge, this study had not been performed in the literature of the determinants of tax revenue mobilization, although fact-based analysis was performed.

This paper analyzes the impact of economic downturns on the revenue and expense sides of city financing for the period 2003 to 2009 using a convenience sample of the audited end of year financial reports for thirty midsized US cities. The analysis focuses on whether and how quickly and how extensively revenue and spending directions from past years are altered by recessions. A seven year series of Comprehensive Annual Financial Report (CAFR) data serves to explore whether citiesʼ revenues and spending, especially the traditional property tax and core functions such as public safety and infrastructure withstood the brief 2001 and the persistent 2007 recessions? The findings point to consumption (spending) over stability (revenue minus expense) for the recession of 2007, particularly in 2008 and 2009.

This paper aims to provide a quantitative assessment of the broad economic effects of tax policy reform in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA).

Using a dynamic computable general equilibrium (CGE) model of the KSA, three simulations are run. The first simulation is the baseline simulation, which generates growth paths of the Saudi economy in the absence of tax reform. In developing the baseline simulation, this study incorporates forecasts from the International Monetary Fund. The remaining simulations are policy simulations. A policy simulation deviates from the baseline simulation in response to a policy change. In the first policy simulation, this study introduces a value-added tax (VAT) that generates SAR 35bn. This study assumes budget neutrality with the additional tax revenue transferred to households via a lump sum payment. In the second policy simulation, this study introduces a corporate income tax that generates SAR 35bn. This study then calculates and compares the distortion these taxes introduce into the economy.

This study finds that although the introduction of new taxes increases government tax revenue, markets are distorted lowering efficiency and production. An introduction of VAT increases the cost of consumption relative to the cost of production. As a consequence, the real cost of labour increases lowering employment in the short run. Employment moves to the baseline, as wages adjust capital and real gross domestic product (GDP) is below base throughout the simulation period. The second simulation is an increase in the corporate tax rate with lowers the post-tax rates of return investors receive. This simulation shows that the negative impact on investment, capital and GDP is larger with the introduction of a corporate tax than with the VAT.

Literature focusing on tax policy reform in the Gulf Cooperation Council and, specifically, Saudi Arabia is limited. This paper contributes to the literature by focusing on the following: understanding the impact and mechanisms through which changes in taxation impact the economy more generally; understanding the potential harm caused to allocative efficiency and production due to taxes; and ways in which fiscal reform might complement other reforms such as efforts to diversify the economy, labour market and energy price reforms. This improves the information base available to policymakers charged with designing an optimal tax system that meets all future requirements of a country such as the KSA.

The authors developed and applied a CGE model for the KSA to analyse the impact of VAT and corporate tax on the Saudi economy. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, there are no recent CGE models for Saudi Arabia that have been used for tax policy or quantifying the potential harm to the economy when new taxes are introduced.

This study examines whether and how government fiscal pressure influences corporate charitable giving (CCG).

The authors exploit sub-national tax revenue sharing changes as exogenous variations to government’s fiscal pressure at the city level and then construct a quasi difference-in-differences (DiD) model to conduct the analysis based on a sample that consists of 14,168 firm-year observations in China during the period of 2003 to 2012.

The authors found that firms increase charitable donations when local governments face higher fiscal pressure. Such effects are more pronounced for firms that have stronger demand for political connectedness in the sample period. Furthermore, this study’s findings suggest that the timing strategy of donating helps firms to lower the effective tax rate and to build stronger political connections. In addition, donating firms outperform non-donating firms in terms of bank loan access and market reputation.

The authors contribute to at least three lines of literature: first, extend the understanding of timing strategies of corporate charitable behaviors; second, contribute to the literature studying the “crowd out” effect between government-provided charitable funds and private donations; finally, contribute to the emerging literature exploring the financial interests associated with corporate donation strategy (Claessens et al., 2008; Cull et al., 2015).

This study aims to expand the conventional tax effort model to incorporate relevant economic freedom variables to investigate whether economic freedom fosters tax revenue performance in `sub-Saharan Africa (SSA).

This study uses data from 42 countries across the four sub-regions of SSA from the period 2005 to 2012 with 252 year-country observations in an unbalanced panel method. The data were statistically treated using feasible generalised least square (FGLS) and panel-corrected standard errors (PCSE) estimate techniques.

The findings are twofold. First, the principal finding of the study suggests that economic freedom promotes tax revenue performance. Precisely, the FGLS analysis indicates that property rights freedom, freedom from corruption and investment freedom, as well as the composite economic freedom, exerted positive significant impact on tax revenue performance. This implies that country, which attained high degree of economic freedom, is likely to have higher tax-to-GDP ratio than a country with low level of economic freedom. Secondly, the results of most conventional variables conform to the prediction in the traditional theory except per capita income. Specifically, agriculture share in GDP and per capita income indicate negative significant relationship with tax revenue performance.

Because little is known empirically about the connection between economic freedom and tax revenue performance, this study extended the conventional tax effort model to incorporate the economic freedom to bridge the knowledge gap due to the absence of empirical evidence on the relationship between economic freedom and tax effort.

This paper investigates the effect of the volatility of resource revenue on the volatility of non-resource revenue.

The empirical analysis has utilized an unbalanced panel data set comprising 54 countries over the period 1980–2015. The two-step system generalized methods of moments (GMM) is the main economic approach used to carry out the empirical analysis.

Results show that resource revenue volatility generates lower non-resource revenue volatility only when the share of resource revenue in total public revenue is lower than 18%. Otherwise, higher resource revenue volatility would result in a rise in non-resource revenue volatility.

In light of the adverse effect of volatility of non-resource revenue on public spending, and hence on economic growth and development prospects, countries whose total public revenue is highly dependent on resource revenue should adopt appropriate policies to ensure the rise in non-resource revenue, as well as the stability of the latter.

Economic diversification in resource-rich countries (particularly in developing countries among them) could contribute to reducing the dependence of economies on natural resources, and hence the dependence of public revenue on resource revenue. Therefore, policies in favour of economic diversification would contribute to stabilizing non-resource revenue, which is essential for financing development needs.

To the best of our knowledge, this topic has not been addressed in the literature.