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The purpose of this paper is twofold. The first is to review the extant literature on hospitality management by tracking past research patterns and critically reviewing the use of multilevel theory and techniques in this stream of research. The second is to suggest potential research opportunities to stimulate a leap forward in the current multilevel research.

To answer the four main research questions raised by the current review, the author performed a critical analysis of a total of 149 selected articles published between 2011 and 2021 in seven leading hospitality management journals.

Overall, the number of multilevel studies has increased significantly since 2017. However, some deficiencies remain: a lack of fit between the level of theory and the level of measurement, the revelation of insufficient information, misspecification of the multilevel model and small sample sizes at higher levels. Furthermore, several interesting and understudied topics are also identified as ripe for future investigation.

In addition to encourage the scholars in hospitality management to assess the possibility of using the multilevel research design for their research topics, the current article also provides recommendations and opportunities for the future multilevel research.

This article is a pioneer in providing a critical synthesis of multilevel research in the field of hospitality management. Although reviews of the issues involved in multilevel research are available in the existing literature, none of them focuses on the situation and needs of hospitality management. As multilevel research increases in popularity, this review offers a snapshot of the introductory phase and outlines important issue in conducting such research.

The purpose of this paper is to develop the concept of a high performance alliance macro-culture as a multilevel construct reflective of resilient collaborative systems of exchange within strategic alliances and explores the distinct capabilities of this multilevel approach in predicting alliance outcomes.

The hypotheses developed in this study are tested using primary data collected from 650 members of 15 non-profit organizations in two multi-organizational collaborative networks. Considering the multilevel nature of the study the structural hypotheses are tested using a multilevel confirmatory factor analysis and the predictive hypotheses are tested using multilevel structural equation modeling.

All but one structural hypothesis are supported and all predictive hypotheses are supported suggesting that a multilevel macro-cultural conceptualization is effective in exploring the relationship between collaborative exchange systems and their outcomes.

Limitations stem from the generalizability of the data collected as the alliances formed by non-profit firms may not be wholly reflective of the alliance structures and goals of other firm types.

This study primarily contributes to multilevel study of strategic alliances and the study of collaborative norms and structures of allied groupings. The results of this study lend support to the importance of taking a network governance perspective and illustrate the limitations of traditional single-level approaches when studying interfirm collaborative networks and structural resilience therein.

The contrast of multilevel and comparative research may seem counterintuitive at first. After all, one might argue that comparative research on organizations by necessity spans several levels of analysis (Rokkan, 1966). Yet, multilevel and comparative research on organizations present rather distinct traditions in organization studies, each with its own epistemological assumptions and associated methods. Accordingly, an approach that aims to incorporate both multilevel and comparative ideas needs to start with taking inventory of these prior literatures to situate itself. In the following, we thus turn to the literatures on multilevel and comparative research as different traditions with surprisingly little overlap.

This paper aims to illustrate why an understanding of how levels of analysis interact is an essential part of multilevel research in the field of international business (IB). Using research on strategy implementation (SI) in multinational corporations (MNCs) as an example, this paper develops a taxonomy and research agenda that demonstrates the key role critical scholars can play in advancing multilevel theorization.

Drawing on the assumptions of methodological collectivism and individualism, the paper presents a four-step framework: defining the theoretical boundaries of the selected subject; juxtaposing theoretical arguments with empirical work; identifying single- and multi-level theories; and developing a research agenda.

Research on SI in MNCs has been dominated by one type of theorizing that focuses on the designs of organizational systems or the power of institutions. Multilevel theorization grounded in methodological individualism would offer new knowledge by including the views of under-represented stakeholders, questioning the justice of established systems and overall implications of MNC operations.

The proposed four-step framework encourages scholars to adopt a systematic approach to multilevel theorizing and draw upon the untapped potential of IB theories.

The paper contributes to the IB field by introducing an approach to assessing IB research from a multilevel theorizing perspective. The actionable research agenda on SI and the taxonomy of SI research can assist scholars in making aligned choices on study design and envisioning research questions that yield meaningful contributions to theory and practice.

This paper aims to improve the understanding of competence management in innovative small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) through a multilevel approach.

This paper adopts a three-part structure to propose a conceptual and theoretical framework. It first explores the full scope of multilevel approaches to human resource management research, both in theory and in practice. It then reviews the literature on competence management in innovative SMEs, before demonstrating that the topic is a multilevel phenomenon. Finally, it reflects on the research and methodology implications, identifies limitations and provides suggestions for future research.

This literature review shows that competence management in innovative SMEs is a multilevel phenomenon. It outlines the research and methodology implications, identifies limitations and suggests future research directions.

The overarching contribution is to offer a literature review and a research agenda for a multilevel approach to competence management in the development of innovative SMEs.

The purpose of this paper is to address the statistical issues associated with the hierarchically structured data in previous studies that focused on servant leadership. To resolve these issues, multilevel modeling methods were applied to re-visit the construct validity of the servant leadership questionnaire developed by Barbuto and Wheeler (2006) and investigate the relationship between servant leadership and job satisfaction under a multilevel framework.

The survey data was obtained from a sample of 2,089 teachers from 117 primary and secondary schools in Hong Kong. The analyses were conducted using multilevel confirmatory factor analysis (MLCFA) and multilevel structural equation modeling (MLSEM).

The results revealed the significant and non-trivial variances that were explained at the organization level in the items measuring servant leadership, which justified the use of MLCFA and MLSEM. The results of MLCFA provided empirical support for the multidimensional construct as well as the second-order factorial structure of servant leadership measures at both the individual and organization levels. In addition, the positive relationships between servant leadership and the followers’ job satisfaction were found to vary at different levels.

This study reiterates the importance of using appropriate methods to capture a solid definition of the construct of servant leadership and provides new insights into the conceptual framework of servant leadership as well as the effects of servant leadership on individual and organizational outcomes.

This study aims to investigate the direct and indirect relationships among principal instructional leadership, collective teacher efficacy, and teacher commitment using multilevel analysis.

This study employed quantitative cross-sectional research design. Data were collected from 1,328 teachers selected from 71 Malaysian primary schools.

The direct relationship between instructional leadership and teacher commitment was significant at the school level. Similarly, instructional leadership exhibits a significant direct effect on collective teacher efficacy. Collective teacher efficacy also has a significant direct effect on teacher commitment. The results also indicate a significant indirect effect at school level between instructional leadership and teacher commitment through collective teacher efficacy.

The multilevel analysis among instructional leadership, collective teacher efficacy, and teacher commitment warrant further investigations with larger sample sizes at both group and individual levels.

This study supplements previous findings by contributing more rigorous empirical evidence using multilevel analysis. The findings extend current knowledge in the principal instructional leadership literature in the context of a Southeast Asian country.

Does staffing contribute to organizational effectiveness and sustained competitive advantage, or are many of staffing’s implications merely cross-level fallacies? This article provides a critical examination of staffing research and practice, and proposes a multilevel model of staffing that ties together micro (e.g. personnel selection), meso (e.g. team staffing), and macro (e.g. organizational strategy, Human Resources practices) theory, research, and practice. The model is both integrative and prescriptive, providing a basic organizing structure for examining staffing research within and across levels. The article begins with a review of multilevel theory, followed by a review and critique of the dominant staffing paradigms from a multilevel perspective. It is shown these single level paradigms cannot answer many of the primary questions of interest to staffing specialists. In contrast, the multilevel staffing model not only addresses these limitations, but also prompts a variety of new predictions that oftentimes run counter to prevailing wisdom. Staffing specialists are challenged to show how our science and practice contribute to better functioning organizations.

Emerging evidence regarding crowdfunding challenges long-standing “gender gap” views of traditional entrepreneurial financing and indicates that female entrepreneurs may have an advantage in crowdfunding. Yet, the literature primarily focuses on influences at the individual level, largely overlooking the interaction between gender and higher-level culture. Drawing on Hofstede's cultural dimensions, this paper aims to investigate the associations among entrepreneurs' gender, culture and crowdfunding performance, particularly in how entrepreneurs' gender and culture interact to affect crowdfunding performance.

Leveraging a sample of 21,730 Kickstarter crowdfunding campaigns and combining these data with data from Hofstede's study, the World Bank (WB) and the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), this study applies multilevel models to empirically investigate this question across 22 countries/regions.

This study confirms that the advantageous effect, that female entrepreneurs are likely to obtain better fundraising performance over their male counterparts, does exist in crowdfunding. Furthermore, the findings reveal that this advantageous effect of female entrepreneurs on crowdfunding performance would be reinforced when cultures of individualism and indulgence are high and culture of long-term orientation is low.

This study contributes to the literature on gender gaps in crowdfunding and entrepreneurial financing by adding an important culture-related boundary condition to the gender preference reported in earlier crowdfunding work. Moreover, the paper extends the knowledge about the impact of culture on crowdfunding performance and enlightens future research on leveraging multilevel modeling approach to examine the complex interplay between individuals and situations in crowdfunding.

This study aims to examine the link between leader–member exchange (LMX) and employee innovative work behavior (IWB) by using employee job crafting as a mediator.

The study uses multilevel, multisource and multiwave data collected from 284 employees working in the banking sector of Pakistan.

The study findings suggest a significant positive relationship between (i) LMX and job crafting dimensions and (ii) job crafting dimensions and employee IWB. Job crafting dimensions mediated the impact of LMX on IWB, except for relational crafting, which was not significant. Multilevel analysis demonstrated significant individual-level job crafting and IWB.

This study undertakes a multilevel mediational analysis to examine the relationship between LMX and IWB, which is rarely applied in the existing literature. Moreover, this study contributes to understanding how LMX influences IWB using the conservation of resources theory.