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While English is the most commonly used language for market research, surveys and customer feedback in India, it does not reach the subcontinent’s entire population. Therefore, many questionnaires are bilingual, offering the respondent a choice between English and an indigenous Indian language. This, however, presupposes that answers to items are not influenced by people’s language proficiencies and response styles in different languages. This paper aims to examine whether market researchers in India should be careful about nonrandom measurement error caused by language response bias.

English and Kannada questionnaires are administered in a test-retest scenario to 160 respondents in the Indian Tier-II city of Mysore. The data evaluation is organized by dispositional (language proficiency in English and Kannada) and situational influences (language of the questionnaire in English or Kannada); a series of tests to elucidate language response bias is conducted.

While the significance of the two-tailed English-Kannada paired-sample tests is borderline, a more detailed look reveals surprising differences for the dispositional as well as situational linguistic influences. Moreover, the response style peculiarities in the Indian multilingual environment are not always consistent with differences in other international bilingual environments.

High-quality data are central to all empirical research, but situational and dispositional language response bias seems to contaminate questionnaires in the Indian multi-lingual environment. This study highlights the effect and provides Indian market researchers with some first strategies for managing the challenge.

Previous studies of immigrant populations suggest that ceteris paribus an immigrant's level of income is strongly and positively correlated with his proficiency in the local language. The purpose of this paper is to extend this literature using data from a telephone survey carried out in 2005 among a representative sample of Former Soviet Union (FSU) immigrants. Unlike previous surveys, the data includes responses to detailed subjective questions on degree of social involvement, in addition to the number of years since migration and level of proficiency in the local language. The authors are able to demonstrate that a higher degree of assimilation is associated with a significantly higher likelihood of finding full-time employment. Moreover, the estimation results for the wage equation reveal that the effect on income previously attributed solely to language proficiency is in fact also the result of more successful assimilation in the receiving culture. The findings thus stress the importance of assimilation in determining success in job search and in explaining variations in income among immigrants who are already employed in full-time jobs. Finally, the results obtained when differentiating according to gender show that male immigrants have better prospects of finding a job than female immigrants and higher incomes once they find one, which is consistent with the existing literature.

In order to compare the relative importance of the language proficiency variable (LANGUAGE _i ) to that of the social involvement variable (ASSIMILATION _i ), The authors apply the probit model to two separate equations. The first is the prospects of finding a job and the second is the wage equation.

–The authors are able to demonstrate that a higher degree of assimilation is associated with a significantly higher likelihood of finding full-time employment. Moreover, the estimation results for the wage equation reveal that the effect on income previously attributed solely to language proficiency is in fact also the result of more successful assimilation in the receiving culture. The findings thus stress the importance of assimilation in determining success in job search and in explaining variations in income among immigrants who are already employed in full-time jobs. Finally, the results obtained when differentiating according to gender show that male immigrants have better prospects of finding a job than female immigrants and higher incomes once they find one, which is consistent with the existing literature.

The limitation is, like all of the existing literature and in particular the few studies that deal with social networking, that the database is exclusively based on either interviews or surveys consisting of self-assessment questions (such as, Dustman, 1996; Lazear, 1999; Amuedo-Dorantes and Mundra, 2007). Consequently, the implicit assumption is that the respondent's self-perceived level of assimilation constitutes a good proxy for the true level.

The implications are the following: the findings are thus consistent with those of Lazear (1999), who anticipates a negative correlation between the relative size of a minority group and the level of proficiency in the local language. In the case of Israel, which received a massive wave of 1.5 million immigrants from the FSU, the findings indeed suggest that the chances of an immigrant job seeker finding a job are far more dependent on his degree of assimilation than his level of language proficiency. Moreover, the effect of the degree of assimilation, which has not previously been included in estimations, was mistakenly attributed to language proficiency. The findings of this research thus reveal the importance of the degree of assimilation in finding a job and can explain income differences among those who have already found full-time employment.

Previous studies of immigrant populations suggest that ceteris paribus the level of income is strongly and positively correlated with proficiency in the local language. The current study extends this literature using data from a telephone survey carried out in 2005 among a representative sample of FSU immigrants. Unlike previous surveys, the data includes responses to detailed subjective questions on degree of social involvement, in addition to the number of years since migration and level of proficiency in the local language. The authors are able to demonstrate that a higher degree of assimilation is associated with a significantly higher likelihood of finding full-time employment. Moreover, the estimation results for the wage equation reveal that the effect on income previously attributed to language proficiency is in fact the result of more successful assimilation in the receiving culture. The results are robust to gender differences. The findings thus stress the importance of assimilation in determining success in job search and in explaining variations in income among immigrants who are already employed in full-time jobs.

One in nine people between the ages of 18 and 64 in the US, and every second foreign-born person in this age bracket, speak Spanish at home. And whereas around 80 percent of adult immigrants in the US from non-English-speaking countries other than Mexico are proficient in English, only about 50 percent of adult immigrants from Mexico are proficient. The use of a language other than English at home, and proficiency in English, are both analyzed in this paper using economic models and data on adult males from the 2000 US Census. The results demonstrate the importance of immigrants’ educational attainment, their age at migration, and years spent in the US to their language skills. The immigrants’ mother tongue is also shown to affect their English proficiency; immigrants with a mother tongue more distant from English being less likely to be proficient. Finally, immigrants living in ethnic–linguistic enclaves have lesser proficiency in English than immigrants who live in predominately English-speaking areas of the US. The results for females are generally very similar to those for males. The findings from an ordered probit approach to estimation are similar to the findings from a binary probit model, and the conclusions drawn from the analyses mirror those in studies based on the 1980 and 1990 US Censuses. Thus, the model of language skills presented appears to be remarkably robust across time and estimation techniques, and between the genders.

This chapter highlights the growing body of international research into the benefits of residence abroad for foreign language students, surveying studies from the past 35 years originating in both the U.S.A. and the U.K. It examines some of the problematic issues confronting researchers in this area and shows how these issues have contributed to a paucity of studies in the area and led to a diversity in research design. It reports on longitudinal study, the first of its kind in the U.K., which examined the linguistic benefits of residence abroad for a cohort of modern language students from a leading university. This 4-year study used repeated measures proficiency testing, involving a C-test, a grammar test and a range of qualitative measures, to chart the progress made by students on 6- and 12-month study placements in Germany. Findings confirm substantial proficiency gains on both of the main measures but fail to confirm gender and length of residence abroad as predictors of progress. Results also reveal strong differential individual performance during residence abroad. The chapter concludes with recommendations for future research aimed at exploring this key finding further.

In this chapter, the authors provide an introspective account of how teachers in mainstream classrooms can use questioning to more effectively differentiate literacy instruction for English learners across subject areas. The authors offer a rationale for constructively responsive questioning and share tools and strategies for adapting levels of questioning to students’ English proficiency and grade levels with the goal of strengthening instruction and promoting student engagement in learning.

Both potential immigrants to Canada and policymakers in Canada continually compare and contrast the economic returns of immigrants' language ability and proficiency. They ask which of the two official languages has a higher economic return in terms of employment and earning. This study examines how ability and proficiency in Canada's two official languages, separately and/or jointly, influences immigrants' quick absorption into the labour market.

The study uses all three waves of the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada (LSIC) and employs logistic regression on the relationship between employability, language ability/proficiency and various non-linguistic factors.

The study reports that language ability in French is as valuable as language ability in English for immigrants who are aspiring to work, full-time or part-time, when they arrive in Canada. The advantages of language ability and proficiency continue a few years after an immigrant's arrival. Using disaggregated speaking, reading and writing competencies, the authors observe that speaking proficiency in English has a greater impact on employability than reading and writing in English.

There are very few studies looking at the effects of language ability and proficiency on the employability of immigrants in countries with multiple official languages. Most studies are mainly focused on earning and not employability. This study is focused on employability, particularly in the context of Canada. Furthermore, this study specifically disaggregates the impact of speaking, reading and writing competencies in both languages on employment in Canada.

The purpose of this paper is to examine how cultural intelligence (CQ) and language proficiency are related to cross‐cultural adjustment, expatriate satisfaction, and expatriate desires towards the future, to further what is known about CQ.

A quantitative survey was developed and administered to 140 native English‐speaking expatriates living in Japan who were participating in the Japan Exchange and Teaching program. The survey was designed to measure CQ, language proficiency, cross‐cultural adjustment, satisfaction with their work and life in Japan, and their attitudes towards future expatriate assignments.

In total, there were eight criterion variables used in the study. Results from a series of hierarchical regression analyses revealed that the four CQ factors and language proficiency to various degrees were able to predict the various criterion variables. Motivational CQ was the only predictor variable that was able to predict all criterion variables.

This paper provides solid quantitative research into CQ. However, since the data come from self‐report surveys, its limitations in terms of common method bias are recognized.

This study identifies both language ability and CQ as predictive of expatriate adjustment. This information enables organizations to better prepare their members for expatriate assignments.

Although prior research has investigated a number of these issues separately on various types of samples, this paper is the first to combine all the variables into one study using expatriates.

The purpose of this paper is to explore the interrelation between language differences, media choice and social categorization in global virtual teams (GVTs).

An ethnographic field work was conducted in a Finnish multinational corporation (MNC). The study included interviews, observations, and language proficiency assessment of 27 GVT members located in five European countries.

In GVTs, the combination of language proficiency differences and verbal media (e.g. telephone) tends to lead to social categorization, while a similar effect was not found when GVT members chose written media (e.g. e-mail).

The qualitative study only consisted of GVTs from one MNC, and thus the empirical findings might not be generalizable to other MNCs. Therefore, quantitative studies that can add to the robustness of the exploratory findings could be a worthwhile endeavour.

Language training should be provided to GVT members, and virtual policies should be implemented to ensure the use of written media in GVTs characterized by language proficiency differences.

Although it is well established in the literature that language differences are detrimental to co-located team effectiveness no study has explored how the relationship between variation in language proficiency and media choice affects social categorization in GVTs.

The purpose of this paper is to determine the degree of interrelatedness and the role of a number of context‐specific factors in the English language proficiency development of Arab college‐bound learners. These factors include: language class risk‐taking, sociability, discomfort, motivation, and attitude toward class.

The study employed a one‐group pretest‐posttest experimental design. In total, 67 (n=67) male English as a foreign language college‐bound learners participated in the study. All participants took general English language proficiency pretests and posttests in order to determine the effect size of improvement in their language proficiency after an intensive treatment of 200 contact hours. The calculated effect sizes of improvement were correlated with learners' scores on the factors under study as measured by a modified version of the Ely classroom climate measure. In addition, Pearson product‐moment correlation coefficients were computed and a step‐wise multiple regression analysis was run in order to determine the degree of interrelatedness among the variables under study and to determine their extent of their role in the effect size of the proficiency gains of the participants.

The findings indicated that language class sociability is positively related to students' motivation to learn and to a positive class attitude. Conversely, language class risk‐taking was found to be negatively related to class discomfort which in turn was negatively related to student motivation to learn. The findings also indicated that none of the affective variables under study predicted the effect size of the proficiency gains realized by learners.

The findings of this study suggest that language acquisition is a complex process determined by interaction among a number of learner‐related and contextual factors. Furthermore, the findings suggest that motivation for learning is related to learners' affective feelings and may impact their class participation. A limitation of the study is that it employed a one‐group experimental design and, as such, there was no control or comparison group.

Using humanistic/affective methods of teaching could decrease students' feelings of class discomfort and increase their motivation and class sociability.

The study provides insights into the language acquisition process of Arab college‐bound learners based on empirical evidence.

The object of this brief paper is to discuss the balance between business content and language proficiency in study abroad programs related to business. When blending these three activities, the challenge is to balance each appropriately. If the study abroad experience contains little or no business content, students lose out on the opportunity to learn elements of international business. If the study abroad experience contains little or no language content, students miss out on the cultural integration that is essential for international interactions. And if “study abroad” becomes too loose (i.e. party on the beach) or too rigid (i.e. no different than taking classes back home), students miss the essence of studying in a foreign location. Of course, there are excellent business study abroad programs that are conducted in English (e.g. see Keillor & Emore for the roundtable discussion regarding English language programs). The focus of this paper is the role of foreign language instruction and student proficiency in foreign language, as it relates to business study abroad programs.