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This paper aims to investigate empirically how international tourism receipts influence public revenue, in particular non-resource revenue.

The analysis relies on an unbalanced panel of 156 countries (including both developed and developing countries) over the period 1995-2015. The empirical analysis uses the two-step system generalized methods of moments estimator.

The empirical results show that international tourism receipts exert a positive and significant impact on non-resource tax revenue. In addition, this effect increases as countries' development levels rise, which signifies that in terms of non-resource tax revenue, an increase in international tourism receipts benefit much more to advanced economies than to less advanced economies.

These findings call for governments notably in developing countries to develop the tourism sector and concurrently to strengthen tax administrations (and possibly design appropriate tax policy for the tourism sector) to derive the full advantage in terms of public revenue from the rise in international tourism receipts.

The analysis highlights the importance of international tourism receipts for public revenue. This would help scholars and policymakers have a clearer view, at least in terms of magnitude, on the impact of international tourism receipts on non-resource tax revenue.

To the best of the author’s knowledge, this is first the study that investigates this topic.

本文就国际旅游收入如何影响公共收入尤其是非资源收入的问题, 进行了实证研究。

本文的分析基于1995年至2015年期间由156个国家（包括发达国家和发展中国家）组成的不平衡小组的数据。 实证分析采用两步法通用矩量法（GMM）估计。

实证结果表明, 国际旅游收入对非资源税收入产生了积极而显著的影响。 而且, 这种影响随着国家发展水平的提高而增加, 这表明就非资源税收入而言, 国际旅游收入的增加对发达经济体的收益要比对较不发达经济体的收益大得多。

结果表明, 各国政府尤其是发展中国家的政府, 应当发展旅游业, 同时加强税收管理（并可能为旅游业设计适当的税收政策）, 以便从国际旅游业的增长中获得公共收入方面的最大收益。

分析强调了国际旅游收入对公共收入的重要性。 这将有助于学者和决策者对国际旅游收入对非资源税收入的影响（至少在规模上）有更清晰的认识。

据我们所知, 本文是第一个研究该主题的研究。

旅游外汇收入，非资源性收入

研究论文

El artículo investiga empíricamente, cómo los ingresos internacionales por turismo influyen en los ingresos públicos, en particular, todos aquellos ingresos “no relacionados” con los recursos turísticos.

El análisis se basa en un panel no-equilibrado de 156 países (incluidos países desarrollados y en desarrollo) durante el período 1995-2015. El análisis empírico que se aplica, se fundamente en dos fases sobre el estimador de Métodos Generalizados de Momentos (GMM).

Los resultados muestran que los ingresos internacionales por turismo, ejercen un impacto positivo y significativo, en los ingresos fiscales no relacionados con los recursos turísticos. Además, este efecto aumenta, a medida que aumentan los niveles de desarrollo de los países, lo que significa que, en términos de ingresos fiscales, no relacionados con los recursos, un aumento en los ingresos internacionales por turismo, beneficia mucho más a las economías avanzadas, que a las economías menos avanzadas.

Los descubrimientos de este trabajo, exigen que los gobiernos, en particular en los países en desarrollo, fomenten el sector turístico y al mismo tiempo, fortalezcan las administraciones tributarias (y posiblemente diseñen una política fiscal adecuada para el sector turístico), con el fin de obtener una ventaja total, en términos de ingresos públicos por el aumento de los ingresos del turismo internacional.

El análisis destaca la importancia de los ingresos por el turismo internacional en los ingresos públicos. Esto ayudaría a los académicos y gestores de políticas a tener una visión más clara, al menos en términos de magnitud, sobre el impacto de los ingresos por el turismo internacional en los ingresos fiscales no relacionados con los recursos turísticos.

Hasta donde sabemos, este es primero el estudio que investiga este tema.

Recibos de turismo internacional, Ingresos no recurrentes

Trabajo de investigación

Investigates the time series relationship between export earnings instability and instability in receipts from international tourism for Singapore between 1972 and 1988. Computes four standardized instability indexes for both merchandize exports and international travel receipts, having suitably adjusted the official export series for re‐exports and corrected the two data series for trend. There is some support for the view that export receipts are more unstable than tourism receipts. Although exports are generally more unstable over the whole period, they were relatively more unstable in the early to mid‐1970s during a period of international instability. Tourism receipts, on the other hand, were relatively more unstable in the 1980s, partly as a result of world recession, but also because of structural problems in the tourism industry in Singapore. Also finds that the development of the tourism sector in Singapore has exerted a net destabilizing effect on total exports of goods and services.

Although interest in international trade is of long standing, economists and policy makers have seldom attempted to link international tourism with trade theory — despite the growing importance of international tourism as a component of international trade. As per Wahab (1975), there is a dearth of scientific books covering the wide range of tourism subjects. In fact, he says “not more than half a dozen books have appeared in the English language in Europe and America on the subject of tourism between 1970–1975”.

Nowadays it is — to a certain extent — popular to criticize international tourism to third world countries. These criticisms may base on widely divergent aspects of the phenomenon, ranging from for instance the economic impact to the environmental impact or the psychological impact. Without implicitly suggesting that the non‐economic effects of international tourism in developing countries are unimportant we will concentrate in the following on the economic impact. The reason for this is twofold:

The geographical location and the ambiance of the Coastline Mediterranean Countries (CMCs) advantageously present the region as a tourist destination with rich cultures. The paper aims to discuss this issue.

As such, this study investigates the dynamics of energy import and environmental quality in relation to international tourism development for nine CMCs over the period 1995–2013 using a pooled mean group approach.

Although the impacts of energy import, CO₂ (here as environmental quality) and GDP on international tourism receipts are observed to be significant and negative, international tourist arrival expectedly exerts positive and significant impact, all at the adjustment speed of 0.19. A heterogeneously robust Granger non-causality test further reveals a strong one-directional causal relationship from energy import to tourism receipts.

The dynamics of the energy market amidst persistent evolution of new source(s) of energy would evidently play a significant role in the region’s tourism sector. It then suggests policy direction to governments of the region and by extension the global tourism market.

By providing insight into the nexus of environment, energy and tourism development, the current study is the first that addresses the concern in the context of the CMCs.

Tourism–economy relationship in India has been studied extensively in the past literature using a single equation approach. However, the present paper diverted from this trend and examined the tourism–economy relationship using the specific to general modelling approach over the 1990–2018 time period. The study also accounts for the influence of merchandise trade, capital formation, foreign investment inflows and inflation on economic growth to achieve the robustness of the coefficient estimates.

To achieve the objective, the study utilised a specific to general modelling strategy. First, the regression equation includes only three core variables: gross domestic product (GDP), international tourist receipts and international tourist expenditures. Next, the authors include other control variables in the regression equation one by one, leading us to test five model types for investigating the cointegration among the variables. As for the estimation technique, the authors employed autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) approach.

The paper's findings highlight that tourism receipts and expenditures exert a positively significant impact on economic growth. Moreover, including the additional independent variables does not substantially change the tourism and economic growth relationship. The existence of one-way causality from tourism expenditures to economic growth supports the tourism-led growth hypothesis. These findings highlight the rationale for intervention by the government and policymakers to promote tourism potential and facilities to accelerate the overall growth performance of the country. While the existence of one-way causal effect from economic growth to tourism revenues supports the growth-led tourism development hypothesis, implying that economic expansion is necessary for tourism development.

This research article tried to present a comprehensive picture of India's tourism–economy relationship. However, the present study is organised as an aggregate economy-level analysis. It assumed that the aggregate tourism sector is homogenous. However, different tourism sectors exert different levels of influence on the economy. The authors expect future research can take the disaggregated analysis of the tourism–economy relationship.

This study provides valuable insights into the tourism-led growth hypothesis in India. The study highlights comprehensive intervention by the government and policymakers for accelerating tourism development to invigorate the overall growth performance of the country over the long run. The principal recommendation emerging from the present research is that the tourism growth potential can be depended upon to stimulate the economic performance of the Indian economy.

The present study diverted from the previous empirical studies by following a specific to general modelling strategy. First, the regression model includes only three core variables such as economic growth, tourism receipts and tourism expenditure. Next, the authors include other control variables in the regression equation one by one, leading us to test five model types for investigating the cointegrating relationship among the variables. GDP growth rate is used as a dependent variable in all five specifications. The idea is to expand the model to capture every feature of the data generating process.

The present study aims to investigate the dynamic relationship between international tourist receipts, economic growth, energy use and carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions in Pakistan over the period 1980-2016. Many researchers have investigated the link between tourism and CO₂ emissions, but there is no clear picture as the results are contradictory. This study is an attempt to compliment the literature related to tourism and environmental quality.

The study adopted the autoregressive distributed lagged (ARDL) model to investigate the short- and long-run estimates simultaneously. The study further applied Granger causality to find out the direction of causalities. To arrive at long-run robust estimates, the study used dynamic ordinary least squares (DOLS) model.

The results found that tourist receipts have no significant impact on environmental quality, while growth and energy consumption are the main determinants of CO₂ emissions in Pakistan. The Granger causality test confirmed unidirectional causalities from GDP and energy consumption toward CO₂ emissions, while tourist receipts do not affect environmental quality. DOLS technique confirmed the long-run estimates of ARDL model.

The result of the study complements the literature by adding new evidence regarding the nexus of tourism and environment. Findings of the study are important for policymakers and regulatory bodies to place their focus on the development of tourism sector (services sector) rather than energy-intensive manufacturing activities to sustain the growth of the country in higher quartiles, as tourism receipts have no significant negative externalities toward environment, while energy use is one of the key determinants of environmental degradation.

This study used time series data over the period 1980-2016 for Pakistan to inspect the dynamic relationship between tourist receipts, economic growth, energy consumption and CO₂ emissions.

This study aims to examine the relationship between tourism development and economic growth while considering exports simultaneously. Governments in many countries have been developing and deploying strategies to attract tourism receipts as a means for economic growth. However, assessing the potential impact of tourism on economic growth among large economies is still in its infancy.

Using a vector error correction model framework, this study examines the relationship among exports, gross domestic product (GDP) and tourism receipts (including international tourism receipts and domestic tourism receipts in two separate models) with macro data that covers two recent decades (1994-2013) in China.

The empirical findings confirm the existence of a long-term equilibrium relationship in each of these two tri-variate models. The empirical findings reveal that (1) both tourism-led-growth and export-led-growth hypotheses are supported, (2) the growth rate of tourism receipts exhibit a higher relevance with GDP growth than export growth and (3) the growth rate of international tourism shows a higher relevance with GDP growth than domestic tourism growth.

Using macroeconomic data collected by the Chinese government, the current study employs an advanced econometric methodology to explore the potential benefits of tourism on economic growth in China.

This study examines whether international tourism demand in the Visegrád countries is influenced by countries' risk rating on environmental, social and governance (ESG) factors, as non-economic factors relating to ESG risks have been ignored by previous researches on determinants of international tourism demand.

The study investigates panel data for the Visegrád countries comprising the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland and Slovakia over the period 1995–2019. Recently developed techniques of augmented mean group (AMG) and common correlated effects mean group (CCEMG) estimators are employed so as to take care of cross-sectional dependence, nonstationary residuals and possible heterogeneous slope coefficients.

The regression estimates suggest that besides economic factors, the perception of international tourists regarding ESG risk is another important determinant of international tourism demand in the Visegrád countries. The study also established that income levels in the tourists' originating countries are the most critical determinant of international tourism demand to the Visegrád countries.

The research outcomes of the study include the need for the Visegrád countries to direct policies towards further mitigating their ESG risks in order to improve future international tourism demand in the area. They also need to ensure exchange rate stability to prevent volatility and sudden spikes in the relative price of tourism in their countries.

Tourism plays an important role in the Portuguese economy. It employs 3.5 per cent of the working population and is the most rapidly growing economic activity in Portugal (OECD, 1986). Mendonsa (1983, p.218) notes that Portugal ‘is a poor country which has only managed to maintain a favorable balance of trade because of tourism and the remittances of its many emigrants working abroad’. Portuguese tourism is also increasingly successful compared to other destinations; Kendell and de Haast (1986, p. 12) point out that Portugal ‘has one of the fastest growing tourism sectors in Western Europe’.