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This chapter assesses authentic leadership and finds it to be highly egalitarian, meaning that it may be unattractive to managers accustomed to a hierarchical style. In general, management may lack knowledge about leadership theory relevant to both hierarchy and egality, the latter of which many younger employees prefer. Such a disconnect between management and follower preferences may explain two concerning findings by Gallup regarding global employee engagement: levels have remained low for nearly a decade, and companies resist Gallup's recommended cultural change. The author's ComPILAR model of group dynamics, which incorporates both egalitarian and hierarchical extremes offers potential hierarchical additions to authentic leadership, which may boost the ability of authentic leadership to guide leaders in hierarchical teams and organisations.

The purpose of this paper is to analyze long-term institutional causes and consequences of preference falsification by studying the evolution of China’s patriarchal clan system.

The historic study shows that although the clan system was abolished in the Qin dynasty, it re-emerged among high-standing families in the Han dynasty and spread to common people after the Tang dynasty.

The author submits that the clan system was an institutional response to the preference falsification problem that arose due to the dictatorial political institutions first established in the Qin dynasty. It helped people to take collective action by themselves and also opened a back door to influence government decisions. A piece of clear evidence is the co-evolution of the clan system and government personnel system.

In this sense, the clan system probably also helped to prolong the political institutions for 2,000 years.

This is the first institutional study on the clan system in China.

Many studies on witch killings in Africa suggest that “witchcraft is the dark side of kinship.” But in Chinese history, where patriarchal clan system has been emphasized as the foundation of the society, there have been few occurrences of witch-hunting except a large-scale one in the Cultural Revolution in 1966. The purpose of this paper is to explain the above two paradoxes.

Theoretical analysis based on preference falsification problem with regard to the effect of social structure on witch-hunting is carried out.

There is a “bright side of kinship” due to two factors: first, it would be more difficult to pick out a person as qualitatively different in Chinese culture; second, the hierarchical trust structure embedded in the Chinese culture can help mitigate the preference falsification problem, which acts as the leverage for witch-hunting. In this sense, an important factor for the Cultural Revolution is the decline of traditional social institutions and social values after 1949.

This paper is the first to advance the two paradoxes and offer an explanation from the perspective of social structure.

In all, 218 business/psychology working students contributed to the validation of the 20-item Mentor Expectations Measure (MEM). Mentors expected outcomes of mentoring protégés based on protégé race and mentors’ level of social dominance orientation (SDO) were established. The paper aims to discuss these issues.

Study 1: to better understand the structure of the newly created MEM, (and to take the first step toward establishing a model) the authors conducted an exploratory factor analysis, using principle axis factoring procedure for extraction with direct oblimin rotation. The factor analysis yielded four viable factors. Study 2: participants were the same 218 working undergraduate students from a mid-sized university located on the west coast of the USA. SDO and social desirability were collected and survey participants were presented a stimulus story written so that the reader would take on the perspective of a mentor within a formal organizational mentorship program. Participants were randomly assigned stories in which they, as the mentor, receive a new protégé (the manipulated variable – perceived ethnicity). Other than the names of the protégés, the stimulus stories and questionnaires were exactly the same. The survey consisted of 63 questions in total.

Given evidence of discriminatory behavior toward those that threaten hierarchical norms, the authors anticipated worse expectations for the mentorship to be found in the African American protégé manipulation. Based on the literature, the authors also anticipated stronger interactions between SDO and the mentorship expectations based on the discipline of the mentor. Participant-mentors estimated expected mentor outcome rewards from mentoring a Black or White protégé. No interactions were established, but SDO was a significant predictor of lessened expectations across several elements of the mentorship. This suggests that high levels of SDO in workplace hierarchies manifest poor expectations toward mentorship outcomes no matter the race/ethnicity or disciplinary back ground of the mentor.

While the subjects in the study represent realistic entry level managers and the sample size is acceptable, the authors would like to replicate using larger sample sizes in the future.

The development of the MEM reflects a step forward in the psychometric matching of mentors with protégé. The authors recommend utilizing the MEM to evaluate mentors before establishing a relationship and making sure that the relationship is based on clear expectations, knowledge and balanced interpersonal relationships. Importantly, understanding the impact of individual differences like SDO will facilitate more productive relationships than matching on just ethnic and gender-based commonality.

As significant negative correlations (at the 0.01 level) were found between SDO and mentor commitment, mentor tangible rewards, as well as mentor intrinsic rewards. The negative relationships suggests that as SDO levels increase, participants level of commitment to the protégé lessens, their expectation of tangible rewards based on the mentor ship lessen, and their own levels of intrinsic rewards will diminish. This paints a picture of low expectations for the protégé based on one’s level of SDO, which surprisingly does not seem to interact with race of protégé.

First, the MEM can facilitate the matching of mentors and protégés’. Second, researchers (Klauss, 1981; Kram, 1985) have pointed out that formal mentorship relationships may suffer due to the lack of initiative and commitment which the MEM clarifies. Third, the MEM can be used to examine and existing mentorship relations. Fourth, established use of the MEM or mentorship assessment would signal a “culture of mentoring, with organizations broadcasting the seriousness with which they take mentorship. Finally, the authors establish the impact of SDO on mixed race mentorships.

In this chapter, we attempt to establish global leadership broadly and intercultural competence specifically as constructs of leadership that are essential in the global context and accessible and applicable within the Eastern and Central European context. We examine several international studies of global leadership and cultural differences and highlight the patterns of culturally bounded values and behaviours that can be found in Eastern and Central Europe. We also explore the dimension of intercultural competence, its development, and share two case studies where intercultural competence was either enacted or needed in an Eastern or Central European context. Finally, we share different frames that can and/or have been employed to examine glonal leadership in Eastern or Central Europe. By looking at the cultural differences that have been uncovered in the region and the concept of intercultural competence as foundational to success, we can see that leaders aspiring to global leadership work in this region can find the dimensions of global leadership that will support their goals. The development of intercultural competence specifically and global leadership acumen broadly can be a topic for a different chapter in a different volume.

The purpose of this paper is to investigate the determinants of financing preference of micro and small enterprises (MSEs) whilst distinguishing a broader range of financing sources beyond what is typically the case within the corporate finance literature.

Under the framework of ordinal logistic regression, the paper also tests whether there is evidence of hierarchical preference ordering as predicted by pecking order theory (POH) using field survey data for 2009.

The authors relate that new enterprises are more likely to prefer low cost and less risky or less formal financing such as internal or bootstrap finances. However, as the enterprise gets established or matures, its capacity to seek formal financing increases, thereby becoming more likely to prefer or being in a higher category of formal financing. While the paper affirms the POH, it is argued that this order is a consequence of severe persistent constraints other than sheer preference. The findings further reveal that, microentrepreneur's and MSE's‐specific level socio‐economic characteristics such as owner's education or financial literacy status, households tangible assets, ownership structure, enterprise size, as well as sensitivity to high interest rates in the credit market, to be important determinants of either past (start‐up), present or future financing preference.

The main value of this paper is to analyse the determinants of financing preference of MSEs within the context of rural financial market (RFM) from a developing country perspective.

Examines the relationships between cultural values and preferences for human resource management (HRM) policies and practices in a sample of Taiwanese employees. Specifically, seeks to examine patterns of Chinese national culture in Taiwan, to identify the preferences of employees for specific HRM policies and practices, and to explore the extent to which individual cultural value orientations shape individual preferences for HRM policies and practices. Presents findings from data based on 452 employees from the shopfloor to senior management positions in seven Taiwanese organisations. By controlling the measure of national culture in terms of value orientations, it is found that they account for from only 5 per cent to 10 per cent of the total individual variance in HRM preference. A factor analysis supports the view that national culture value orientations represent a separate construct to both work values and more traditional measures of work outcomes, such as job satisfaction and commitment.

A fundamental aspect of hierarchical loyalty programs is that some consumers get rewards that others do not. Despite the widespread use of such programs, academics have long debated whether these benefits are outweighed by the potential negative impact of the differential treatment of customers. This study aims to extend our understanding, examining the impact of message framing on consumers’ reactions to hierarchical loyalty structures.

Three online studies were conducted. Study 1 uses advertisements to manipulate the message frame’s emphasis (benefits vs status). Study 2 manipulates consumers’ frame of thought by directing their attention to either changes in benefits or status. Finally, Study 3 uses the proposed framework to reconcile contradictory findings from past research.

Low-frequency customers who do not expect to qualify for a superior customer tier tend to reject hierarchical programs when thinking about status. In contrast, when these customers think about concrete rewards, loyalty program messages produce no negative reactions. High-frequency customers are positively affected by communication regardless of the type of benefits framed.

All studies were done online, potentially limiting the external validity of the results. Nevertheless, the impact of message framing on perceptions about the loyalty program seems to be quite robust across different studies and manipulations.

When communicating with low-frequency customers, managers should avoid promising status; customers should instead be motivated based on concrete rewards. High-frequency customers are indifferent to alternative emphasis of communication frames.

Marketing academics have acknowledged the importance of being able to reward top customers without demotivating light and moderate users. This research is the first to provide a solution to this issue.

Building circulation has an important impact on human comfort of buildings and is one of the critical factors in building design. A quantitative walkability evaluation of building circulation can benefit both building design and operation. However, indoor walkability of building circulation is determined not only by objective path features but also by subjective user preference. How to incorporate the preference from a large group of users into the design process is still a challenging issue.

This study proposes a participatory framework of indoor path walkability evaluation based on user preference. Hierarchical indicators are developed to objectively measure indoor path features. Furthermore, group decision-making theory is adopted to aggregate individual user preference into user common preference for determining the relative indicator weights. Finally, integrated walkability scores (IWSs) are calculated to evaluate indoor path walkability quantitatively.

A total of three case scenarios demonstrate that the proposed evaluation framework provides an efficient way for designers and owners to measure user preference quantitatively, analyze building circulations based on user preference and compare the walkability of different building design schemes.

The developed methods provide an efficient way for designers and owners to measure user preference quantitatively, analyze building circulations based on user preference and compare the walkability of different building design schemes.

This study develops a comprehensive and quantitative walkability evaluation approach that considers both objective path features and subjective user preference derived from user characteristics and walking purposes, which provides an effective way to incorporate user feedback into the building design process and operation.

Our understanding of leadership has undergone a significant shift in the early part of the 21st century. An emerging perspective, dubbed Eco-Leadership, suggests leadership is a collective process involving both leaders and followers co-creating leadership. Because our beliefs and attitudes toward leadership affect how we lead, it becomes crucial to better understand the views youth have towards leadership, as they develop into our future leaders, to improve curricula and instruction. In this study, no relationship was found between youth attitudes and beliefs towards systemic and hierarchical thinking with respect to their preferred problem-solving style. These findings indicate youth may adaptively or innovatively associate leadership equally through systemic and hierarchical thinking. Further, neither being more adaptive nor more innovative implies one to be better at leading.