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The purpose of this paper is to understand how Saudis perceive chemical pollution health risks. Also, it attempts to investigate whether there are gender, age, education, and place of residence differences in health risk perception.

A questionnaire was designed and developed as a descriptive survey of the target population's perceptions of the impact of chemical contaminants on health. Statistical data analysis was conducted to determine the response difference among variables.

The survey demonstrated higher perceptions of health risk among females as compared to males in general and that females are more likely than males to rank items as a high risk. Most gender differences were statistically significant (F(23, 516)=4.906, p<0.001). This is in agreement with some other studies in the world. The older age group is, in general, more likely to consider something as being a high‐health risk. Also, respondents with higher education were more likely to rate more health risks as “high risk” than were other respondents. Meanwhile, there was no difference in health risk perception according to place of residence.

Saudis face increasing health risks due to chemical pollution. Very little is known about chemical pollution concern and health risk perceptions in the Saudi society. Understanding public chemicals health risk perceptions is the basis of an effective strategy for environmental health risk management. The results of this survey will provide useful information to policy makers to improve health risk communication and develop effective health risks management policies.

Purpose: Risk is a multifaceted concept, and its identification requires complex approaches that are often misunderstood. The consequence is that decisions are based on limited perception rather than the full value and meaning of what risk is, as a result, the way it is being tackled is incorrect. The individuals are often limited in their perceptions and ideas and do not embrace the full multifaceted nature of risk. Regulators and individuals want to follow norms and checklists or overuse models, simulations, and templates, thereby reducing responsibility for decision-making. At the same time, the wider use of technology and rules reduces the critical thinking of individuals. We advance the automation process by building robots that follow protocols and forget about the part of risk assessment that cannot be programed. Therefore, with this study, the objective of this study was to discover how people define risk, the influencing factors of risk perception and how they behave toward this perception. The authors also determine how the perception differed with age, gender, marital status, education level and region. The novelty of the research is related to individual risk perception during COVID-19, as this is a new and unknown phenomenon. Methodology: The research is based on the analysis of the self-administered purposely designed questionnaires we distributed across different social media platforms between February and June 2020 in Europe and in some cases was carried out as a interview over communication platforms such as “Skype,” “Zoom” and “Microsoft Teams.” The questionnaire was divided into four parts: Section 1 was designed to collect demographic information from the participants; Section 2 included risk definition statements obtained from literature and a preliminary discussion with peers; Section 3 included risk behavior statements; and Section 4 included statements on risk perception experiences. A five-point Likert Scale was provided, and participants were required to answer along a scale of “1” for “Strongly Agree” to “5” for “Strongly Disagree.” Participants also had the option to elaborate further and provide additional comments in an open-ended box provided at the end of the section. 466 valid responses were received. Thematic analysis was carried out to analyze the interviews and the open-ended questions, while the questionnaire responses were analyzed using various quantitative methods on IBM SPSS (version 23). Findings: The results of the analysis indicate that individuals evaluate the risk before making a decision and view risk as both a loss and opportunity. The study identifies nine factors influencing risk perception. Nevertheless, it must be emphasized that we can continue to develop models and rules, but as long as the risk is not understood, we will never achieve anything.

The purpose of this study is to understand the effects of self-risk perception and health consciousness on the intention to purchase organic food. The study also explored external factors, such as social networking, culture and their impact on attitude, self-risk perception and purchasing organic food.

This study uses a quantitative research method to collect data from New Zealand and Fiji (N = 701). The data analysis used the partial least squares path modeling technique (PLS-PM) to test the proposed model.

The empirical results revealed that self-risk perception positively influenced organic food intention. The results show that the health consciousness level strengthens the relationship between self-risk perception, beliefs, values and purchase intention. The health consciousness level dampens the relationship between social networking and purchase intention.

The findings of this study provide valuable insights into the guidance and promotion of Fijian and New Zealand's organic food industry. This study enables marketers to develop health-related promotional tactics to stimulate organic food sales. It gauges organic food promoters to use social media-oriented consumer networking to spread health awareness swiftly.

This comprehensive study extends the literature by scrutinizing the profundity of self-risk perception and health consciousness in influencing and explaining consumers' purchase intentions. Aside from ample growth in the study of organic food purchase intention, which commonly replicates simple relationships, this study ascertains deeper meaning and new relationships to understand the moderating role of health consciousness levels in organic food studies, expanding the theory of planned behavior.

The purpose of this study is to investigate the main effect of top executive smog risk perception on green innovation and to examine the mediating role of corporate social responsibility (CSR) in the positive relationship between smog risk perception and green innovation along with the moderating role of smog knowledge.

A theoretical framework is developed based on the upper echelons theory to argue that top executive smog risk perception can be closely related to green innovation. Hierarchical analysis is conducted using a sample of eight firms in China.

Hypothesis testing indicates that physical health risk perception and mental health risk perception positively affect green innovation, and that these effects are positively mediated by CSR. In addition, smog knowledge moderates the relationship between physical health risk perception and green innovation.

The findings extend current studies on green innovation by highlighting the role of top executives’ perceptions beyond studying top executives’ attributes. The findings suggest that top executives should actively respond to smog pollution and fulfill CSR.

Previous studies have suggested that top executives’ demographic characteristics are the determining factors of green innovation. This empirical paper fills a gap in the literature by exploring the impact of top executive smog risk perception on green innovation within the framework of the upper echelons theory.

The purpose of this paper is to clarify the concept of perceived risks, identify the main antecedents and outcomes of health risk perceptions and propose a conceptual model of health risk perceptions in tourism.

This paper provides a review of the literature on customer risk perceptions, along with their antecedents and outcomes, and proposes a conceptual model of health risk perceptions in tourism.

Key findings reveal that the main factors of health risk perceptions can be broadly classified into cognitive, affective, individual and contextual components. The proposed conceptual model of health risk perceptions provides a theoretically integrated overview of relationships between all groups of factors, tourists’ risk perceptions and travel intentions.

The paper contributes to theory by offering a new approach to health risk perceptions in tourism, which remain underexplored in previous studies. The literature review adds to the body of knowledge by introducing four main groups of factors affecting tourists’ health risk perceptions, while the conceptual model proposes relationships between these factors, tourists’ risk perceptions and travel intentions.

本文的目的是阐明可感知风险的概念, 确定健康风险感知的主要前提和結果, 并提出旅遊业健康风险感知的概念模型。

本文提供了一份关于顾客风险认知的文献综述, 连同他们的前提和结果, 并提出了一个旅遊业健康风险感知的概念模型。

主要发现揭示了健康风险感知的主要因素可以大致分为认知, 情感, 个体和情境成分。所提出的健康风险感知概念模型提供了一个理论上的关于各个成分之间, 游客风险感知, 和出游意向之间综合关系的概况。

本文通过提供一种在以前研究中未被探索的新的旅遊业健康风险感知方法, 为理论发展做出了贡献。文献综述通过介绍影响遊客健康风险感知的四个主要因素丰富了相关知识体系, 所提概念模型则建议了这些因素, 遊客风险感知以及出游意向之间的关系。

Antecedentes y resultados de las percepciones de riesgos para la salud en el turismo: Un modelo conceptual

El propósito de este artículo es clarificar el concepto de riesgos percibidos, identificar los principales antecedentes y resultados de las percepciones de riesgos para la salud, y proponer un modelo conceptual de las percepciones de riesgo para la salud en el turismo.

Este artículo provee una revisión de la literatura sobre las percepciones de riesgo de los clientes, junto con sus antecedentes y resultados, y propone un modelo conceptual de las percepciones de riesgo para la salud en el turismo.

Los resultados clave revelan que los principales factores de las percepciones de riesgos para la salud pueden clasificarse generalmente en componentes cognitivos, afectivos, individuales, y contextuales. El modelo conceptual propuesto de las percepciones de riesgos para la salud provee una perspectiva teoréticamente integrada de la relación entre todos los grupos de factores, las percepciones de riesgo de los turistas, y las intenciones de viaje.

El artículo contribuye teoréticamente al ofrecer un nuevo enfoque sobre las percepciones de riesgos para la salud en el turismo, que siguen sin ser exploradas en estudios anteriores. La revisión de literatura contribuye al cuerpo de conocimiento al introducir los cuatro principales grupos de factores que afectan las percepciones de riesgo para la salud de los turistas, mientras que el modelo conceptual propone la relación entre estos factores, las percepciones de riesgo de los turistas, y las intenciones de viaje.

The purpose of this paper is to investigate the relative impact of workplace bullying and risk perception on the mental health among employees in safety critical organisations. The paper also aims to examine whether self‐esteem moderates the relationship between bullying and risk perception as stressors and mental health as an outcome variable.

Employing a survey design, the variables were assessed in a cross‐sectional sample of 1,017 employees in the Norwegian offshore oil and gas industry.

The results show that workplace bullying is a stronger predictor of mental health problems than is risk perception. Self‐esteem had a buffering effect on the relationship between risk perception and mental health problems, whereas no protective effect of self‐esteem was found with regard to the association between bullying and mental health.

The findings have implications for how organisations may promote employee well‐being and health. It is suggested that organisations develop interventions that are aimed at reducing the occurrence of both.

The purpose of this paper is to analyse the parental risk perception of mycotoxins (mould toxins) related to child health in Germany. It ascertains the parental risk reduction behaviour operationalised as parental additional willingness to pay (aWTP) for special child products. It investigates the interrelationships between parental risk perceptions and risk reduction behaviour.

Altogether, 771 questionnaires were sent to 17 day-care centres in Lower Saxony, Germany. A total of 238 questionnaires were completed. The Perceived Food Risk Index was used to identify the main dimensions of parental risk perception of mycotoxins. Open and closed questions measured aWTP for risk reduction and parental risk estimates.

The respondents believed that mycotoxins posed a moderate health risk for children in Germany. However, parental risk assessment was found to be subjected to an optimistic bias. Nevertheless, the parents were willing to pay a premium to protect their children's health against mycotoxins. Parental risk perception of mycotoxins could be described by two dimensions named “Dread” and “Control”. “Dread” and “Control” predicted aWTP for risk reduction as well as being involved in the genesis of optimistic bias.

Information regarding mycotoxins provided in the questionnaire probably influenced parental responses. This limits the generalisation of the findings.

This research provides initial findings regarding parental risk perceptions of mycotoxins and its impact on risk reduction behaviour. The results are useful for the development of effective risk management and thus for the protection of child health.

The COVID-19 pandemic and the travellers’ behaviour towards travel risk is an emerging issue. Nonetheless, the travellers’ perceived COVID-19 impacts, travel risk perception, health and safety perception and travel avoidance concerning protection motivation theory is unnoticed. Following the protection motivation theory, the current study investigates the direct and indirect relationships between perceived COVID-19 impacts and travel avoidance. Moreover, the travellers’ cognitive perceptions of risk may vary with their demographic characteristics; therefore, the present study aims to test the differences in group-specific parameter estimates using a multi-group analysis.

The authors approached travellers from Tianjin, China using different communication services, including WeChat and email, through a snowball sampling technique. The study used 553 valid questionnaires for analysis.

The results of 553 questionnaires in structural equation modelling (SEM) with AMOS 21 indicated that travellers’ perceived Covid-19 impacts positively correlate with travel avoidance. The study model based on protection motivation theory specifies that travel risk perception and health and safety perception as a cognitive mediating process partially mediated the relationship between perceived COVID-19 impacts and travel avoidance. The findings specified that during COVID-19, travellers assessed the severity of travel risks and adopted preventive measures which influenced their travel behaviour and led to travel avoidance. The multi-group analysis results indicated no difference in perception for gender and education; however, concerning age, the significant nested p-value specifies a difference in perception.

The study offers implications for policymakers and the tourism industry to understand the travellers’ perceptions of travel during the pandemic and ensure health and safety measures to encourage travelling and reviving the tourism industry.

The application of protection motivation theory to analyse the travellers’ perceived COVID-19 impacts and travel avoidance in the presence of travel risk perception and health and safety perceptions as a cognitive mediating process is novel.

COVID-19大流行下的旅行风险问题日益重要。目前, 有关旅游者COVID-19影响感知、旅行风险感知以及健康安全感知与避免旅行之间关系的问题尚未引起学者广泛关注。基于保护动机理论, 本文对COVID-19影响感知与避免旅行之间的直接关系和间接关系进行深入研究。鉴于旅游者旅行风险认知因其人口特征而异, 本文采纳多组分析来检验群体间特定参数估计差异。

采用滚雪球抽样方法在中国天津利用微信和电子邮件共收集了553份有效问卷。

结构方程模型分析结果显示, 旅游者Covid-19影响感知与避免旅行之间呈正相关关系。基于保护动机理论的研究模型表明, 旅行风险感知和健康安全感知作为认知中间过程, 在COVID-19影响感知与避免旅行之间起到部分中介作用。这说明在COVID-19期间, 旅游者首先评估旅行风险等级并采取预防措施, 而这将影响他们的旅行行为, 甚至导致放弃旅行。此外, 多组分析结果表明, Covid-19影响感知在性别和受教育程度上并不存在显著差异, 但在年龄上差异显著。

研究对于政策制定者和旅游业界理解旅游者在疫情期间对旅行的看法以及采取健康和安全措施鼓励游客出游进而实现旅游业复苏具有重要启示。

基于保护动机理论, 引入旅行风险感知和健康安全感知作为中介变量来分析旅游者Covid-19影响感知对避免旅行的影响是本研究的重要创新点。此外, 本研究通过检验Covid-19影响感知在受访者人口学特征上的差异也对现有研究具有一定理论贡献。

La pandemia de COVID-19 y el comportamiento de los viajeros hacia el riesgo del viaje es un asunto emergente. No obstante, los impactos percibidos de COVID-19 por los viajeros, la percepción del riesgo de viaje, la percepción de salud y seguridad, así como la evitación de viajes con respecto a la teoría de la motivación de protección es desapercibida. Por lo tanto, el estudio actual basado en la teoría de la motivación de protección investiga las relaciones directas e indirectas entre los impactos percibidos del COVID-19 y la evitación del viaje. Las percepciones cognitivas del riesgo de los individuos varían con sus características demográficas; por lo tanto, el estudio actual que utiliza un análisis de multigrupo prueba las diferencias en las estimaciones de los parámetros de grupo específico.

Nos acercamos a los viajeros de Tianjin, China, utilizando diferentes servicios de comunicación, incluidos WeChat y email, a través de una técnica de muestreo de bola de nieve. El estudio utilizó 553 cuestionarios válidos para el análisis.

Los resultados empíricos de los 533 cuestionarios en los modelos de ecuaciones estructurales (MES) indican que los impactos percibidos de Covid-19 se correlacionan positivamente con la evitación del viaje. El resultado implica que los encuestados primero evalúan los riesgos y luego toman las decisiones de viajar; por consiguiente, los hallazgos apoyaron la teoría de la motivación de protección. Los hallazgos también mostraron que la percepción del riesgo de viaje y la percepción de salud y seguridad median entre los impactos percibidos de Covid-19 y la evitación de viajes. Además, los resultados del análisis de multigrupo indican que para el género y la educación, no existe una diferencia; sin embargo, en cuanto a la edad, existe una diferencia significativa en la percepción.

Las implicaciones del estudio son importantes para que los legisladores y la industria del turismo comprendan la percepción de los viajeros durante la pandemia y garanticen las medidas de salud y seguridad para animar a viajar.

La aplicación de la teoría de la motivación de protección para analizar los impactos percibidos de COVID-19 por los viajeros y la evitación del viaje en la presencia de la percepción de riesgo de viaje y la percepción de salud y seguridad como variables mediadoras es novedosa. También, el estudio actual contribuye a la literatura a través de probar el modelo teórico sobre las características demográficas de los encuestados.

The purpose of this paper is to investigate the impact of consumers' health beliefs, health involvement, and risk perception on fish consumption behaviour in five European countries.

Cross‐sectional data were collected through a pan‐European consumer survey (n=4,786) with samples representative for age and region in Belgium, The Netherlands, Denmark, Spain and Poland. First, the cross‐cultural validity and cross‐cultural differences in health beliefs, health involvement and risk perception in relation to fish have been tested. Next, structural equation modelling (LISREL) was used in order to simultaneously estimate the strength and direction of relationships between health beliefs, health involvement and risk perception in relation to fish consumption.

Health involvement links up indirectly with subjective health and with total fish consumption, in both cases through increased interest in healthy eating. Interest in healthy eating positively and directly influences fish consumption. Increased risk perception from fish consumption negatively influences consumers' subjective health, as well as consumers' total fish consumption. Finally, subjective health positively relates to satisfaction with life.

This study focused on fish as a product category, and included only a limited number of attitudinal constructs.

This paper provides a unique model relating health beliefs, health involvement and risk perception to fish consumption, which has been tested and validated using a large pan‐European consumer sample.

This study aimed to understand the extent to which cannabis-related risk perception and COVID-19-related health worries were associated with the reported reduction in sharing cannabis smoking products to mitigate the risk of the coronavirus transmission or infection. This association was tested in two different periods in terms of toughness of national lockdown policy imposed in the first months of the pandemic in Israel.

The study population included adult recreational cannabis users who completed one of the two online cross-sectional surveys dedicated to COVID-19 and the cannabis use situation in Israel in the first half of the 2020. The two surveys were conducted six weeks apart. One survey was conducted in the period when strict lockdown measures were in place (N₁ = 376). The other survey was conducted in the period when many lockdown measures were lifted (N₂ = 284). Differences between the samples regarding risk perception, health stressors and reduction in sharing cannabis products were assessed using t-test. Regression analysis was used to test the independent correlates of reported reduction in sharing cannabis products.

Means of risk perception, health stressors and reported reduction in sharing cannabis products were higher in the sample surveyed in the period of the strict lockdown measures than in the sample surveyed in the period of eased lockdown measures. Risk perception was associated with reported reduction in sharing cannabis products only in the sample surveyed in the period of strict lockdown measures. In contrast, health stressors were related to reported reduction in sharing cannabis products in both samples.

Health stressors may represent a more stable mechanism by which cannabis users engage in protective behavior during the pandemic than risk perceptions.

To the best of the authors’ knowledge, the current research is one of the first studies that examine the associations among risk perception, primary stressors and protective behavior in recreational cannabis users while referring to cannabis-related behavior other than use.